TELEVISION PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY

Every camera shares certain essential elements: an optical system, one or more picture pickup devices, preamplifiers, scanning circuits, blanking and synchronizing circuits, video processing circuits, and control circuits. Color cameras also include some kind of color-encoding circuit.

Recognize the types of microphones used in television productions. Sound     plays     a  vital role  in   the     television communication    process.   Most    human    intelligence   is transmitted through sound; therefore, good  quality  sound is an important part of television. However, good quality sound is rather difficult to achieve at times because sound sources may be in motion, talent may speak to the camera and   not   into   the   microphone   and microphones   must sometimes  be  hidden  from  the  view  of  the  camera.  To help solve these audio problems, we should have a basic understanding of television microphones.

Microphones  are  usually  classified  according  to  the way they pick up sound, also known as their polar pattern. Sound in physical terms is the vibration of air particles or small fluctuations  of  air  pressure  that  spread  like  waves from  a  source  of  sound.  Human ears   respond  to  this change  in  pressure  within  a  sound  field.  Similar  to  a human ear,  microphones  respond  to  the  change  in  air pressure    created    by    sound   waves and    convert    the fluctuations of pressure into electrical current. 

An electro optical system used to pick up and convert a visual image or scene into an electrical signal called video. The video may be transmitted by cable or wireless means to a suitable receiver or monitor some distance from the actual scene. It may also be recorded on a video tape recorder for playback at a later time.

A television camera may fall within one of several categories: studio , telecine, or portable. It may also be one of several highly specialized cameras used for remote viewing of inaccessible places, such as the ocean bottom or the interior of nuclear power reactors. The camera may be capable of producing color or monochrome (black and white) pictures. Most modern cameras are entirely solid-state, including the light-sensitive element, which is composed of semiconductors called charge-coupled devices (CCDs). Inexpensive or special-purpose cameras, however, may use one or more vacuum tubes, called vidicon, with a light-sensitive surface in lieu of the charge-coupled devices.

 

TELEVISION STUDIO CAMERA.

elevision is more concerned with the right visuals. Without visuals  the spoken words would look meaningless.

It is the job of the scriptwriter to match the words with the pictures and pass them on to the news readers.

Video Tape

The modern day’s video tape which records a story visually.  When colour TV came to existence chromatic film came to be used . Video tape as it comes now is cheap, light sensitive and also reusable. Video tape has totally replaced film. The video tape is the standard materials used worldwide.

Video Cassette

TV Cameramen usually use 20 minute cassettes because of weight size of the videotape is ¾ inch technically known as U-Matic. Video cassette is sealed at factories. Since the tape is not to be touched by bare hand. Also it will cause to damage the tape also editing machines. Because all the editing work  is done electronically. The sound and picture are on separate tracks on the tape. Thos enables video editors rearrange them separately also make possible pictures and sound can be edited separately.

The Television programs are provided in all the TV channels that the requirement and tastes of viewers. The provision of entertainment programmes in many forms such as songs, dances, cartoons, cinema, and drama. The channels ensure that all classes and categories of their viewers are altered. A videographer shooting for TV must frames his shot a bit smaller than the TV screen to prevent any loose in the total frame when screened.  The tape prepared by the videographer is the first generation tape. When this edited and transferred to another tape . It is became the second generation tape . Any copies made of this tape become the third generation tape.

A cameraman uses shots to narrate his story visually. Among these are the long shot the mid long shot  the medium shot , close up and very close shot.

Other functions that are necessary to obtain high-quality pictures include gamma correction, aperture correction, registration, and color balance. Gamma correction is required because the pickup devices do not respond linearly to increasing light levels. It allows the camera to capture detail in the dark areas of high-contrast scenes, essentially by “stretching” the video levels in those areas. Aperture correction provides several benefits mainly related to an even overall response to scenes with more or less detail. It also helps to improve the signal-to-noise ratio of the camera's output video. Registration must be adjusted on multiple-tube cameras to ensure that the separate red, blue, and green images are precisely aligned on one another; charge-coupled-device cameras are usually registered once, at the factory. Color balance must be properly set on color cameras and must be consistent from dark scenes to bright scenes, or there will be an objectionable tint to the camera output.

Studio cameras are equipped with several ancillary systems to enhance their operation. An electronic viewfinder (actually a small television monitor) shows the camera operator what the camera is seeing, making it possible to frame and focus the picture.

The tally system consists of one or more red lights that illuminate when the camera's picture is “on the line” so that production and on-camera personnel know which camera is active. Generally an intercom system is built into the camera so that the director can communicate with the camera operator. 

The camera itself may be mounted upon a tripod, but more often it is on a dolly and pedestal, which allows the camera to be moved around on the studio floor and raised or lowered as desired. A pan head permits the camera to be rotated to the left or right and furnishes the actual mounting plate for the camera. The lens zoom and focus controls are mounted on a panning handle convenient to the operator.

Telecine cameras are used in conjunction with film or slide projectors to televise motion pictures and still images. Many of the usual controls are automatic so as to require less operator attention.

Portable cameras usually combine all of the basic elements into one package and may be used for a multitude of purposes. They have found their way into electronic news gathering for broadcast television, and into electronic field production, where they can be used for production of broadcast programs, commercials, and educational programs. The units often have built-in microphones, videocassette recorders, and batteries for completely self-contained operation.

Cameras used in high-definition television (HDTV) are fundamentally similar in appearance and operation to previous cameras. In fact, some modern cameras are switchable to produce either a conventional output or an HDTV output. The conventional output has a 4:3 aspect ratio raster and the scan rates match the 525-horizontal-line, 59.94-Hz-vertical-field-rate NTSC standard in the United States. When switched to HDTV mode, the aspect ratio becomes 16:9 and the horizontal scan rate is usually increased to either 720 progressively scanned lines or 1080 interlace-scanned lines with a 60-Hz vertical field rate. See also Television; 

T

The zoom line that cameraman uses enables him to take either a long shot or very close shot without moving camera but only by manipulating the lens.  The zoom lens are rarely used in TV news coverage. It is  useful only for focusing on a man’s face and fingers on documents.  The pan shot moves horizontally to the left or right as required.

The tilt shot covers the scene up or down. The pan shot and the tilt shot are used while shooting conferences meeting  or rallies.  They are not cared generally when the news values of a picture is not important not its quality. It is generally the news writer who selects the best shots available, both  from  the journalistic point  of view and  also visually. In case of smaller stations or channels the cameraman himself is expected to do the editing.

Use of Sound

Direct sound. Live sound. This may have a sense of freshness, spontaneity and 'authentic' atmosphere, but it may not be acoustically ideal.

Studio sound. Sound recorded in the studio to improve the sound quality, eliminating unwanted background noise ('ambient sound'), e.g. dubbed dialogue. This may be then mixed with live environmental sound.

Selective sound. The removal of some sounds and the retention of others to make significant sounds more recognizable, or for dramatic effect - to create atmosphere,  meaning and emotional nuance. Selective sound (and amplification) may make us aware of a watch or a bomb ticking. This can sometimes be a subjective device, leading us to identify with a character: to hear what he or she hears. Sound may be so selective that the lack of ambient sound can make it seem artificial or expressionistic.

Sound perspective/aural perspective. The impression of distance in sound, usually created through the use of selective sound. Note that even in live television a microphone is deliberately positioned, just as the camera is, and therefore may privilege certain participants. 

Sound bridge. Adding to continuity through sound, by running sound (narration, dialogue or music) from one shot across a cut to another shot to make the action seem uninterrupted. 

Dubbed dialogue. Post-recording the voice-track in the studio, the actors matching their words to the on-screen lip movements. Not confined to foreign-language dubbing. 

Wildtrack (asynchronous sound). Sound which was self-evidently recorded separately from the visuals with which it is shown. For example, a studio voice-over added to a visual sequence later. 

Parallel (synchronous) sound. Sound 'caused' by some event on screen, and which matches the action. 

Commentary/voice-over narration. Commentary spoken off-screen over the shots shown. The voice-over can be used to:

§  introduce particular parts of a programme;

§  to add extra information not evident from the picture;

§  to interpret the images for the audience from a particular point of view;

§  to link parts of a sequence or programme together.

The commentary confers authority on a particular interpretation, particularly if the tone is moderate, assured and reasoned. In dramatic films, it may be the voice of one of the characters, unheard by the others.

Sound effects (SFX). Any sound from any source other than synchronised dialogue, narration or music. Dubbed-in sound effects can add to the illusion of reality: a stage- set door may gain from the addition of the sound of a heavy door slamming or creaking.

Music. Music helps to establish a sense of the pace of the accompanying scene. The rhythm of music usually dictates the rhythm of the cuts.. Conventionally, background music accelerates for a chase sequence. Through repetition it can also link shots, scenes and sequences. It may be a more credible and dramatically plausible way of bringing music into a programme than background music.

Silence. The juxtaposition of an image and silence can frustrate expectations, provoke odd, self-conscious responses, intensify our attention, make us apprehensive, or make us feel dissociated from reality.

Dynamic and condenser mics

It's important to choose the proper mic type and polar pattern. Dynamic microphones work on electromagnetic induction and are comparatively simple in design

The manufacturers of some field recorders recommend using condenser mics to provide a better signal-to-noise ratio from the recorders' microphone preamps. Condenser mic design has come a long way, but for pickup of loud sound sources like musical instrument amplifiers, a dynamic mic is less likely to produce SPL overload and distortion because it doesn't have an internal preamplifier.

However, many of the newer condenser microphones have a switch on the case that can attenuate the signal by 10dB or 20dB for loud source pickup. Wireless mic body pack transmitters have a similar attenuation switch inside the case, and this is typically used when the transmitter is employed with an electric guitar or similar instrument with a higher output than the microphone.

Pattern and frequency

The second basic consideration is the pattern. Any new microphone should come with a polar pattern the directionality at various frequencies and the effect of pattern-changing switches. This should always be accompanied by a frequency response graph.

Due to basic audio frequency physics, microphones are less directional as the frequency goes toward bass. Low-frequency sounds penetrate, while higher audio frequencies bounce off solid objects like walls. In real-world use, microphones represent a typical case in which you don't get something for nothing. There is always a trade-off, and this is the essence of experience in microphone selection.

Omni directional microphones are less sensitive to breath popping and sound coloration when used for close-up handheld vocal applications, such as a reporter doing a standup in a high-noise environment.

Cardioids microphones pick up less background ambient sound, but require thicker (and more obtrusive) pop filters. Also, they tend to have a proximity effect that emphasizes bass when held close to the mouth. Singers often use this effect to their advantage.

Shotgun or hyper cardioids microphones provide a tighter pattern but emphasize the proximity effect. For this reason, these types are used in situations where the microphone can't be placed close to the sound source.

Hyper cardioids podium microphones can help prevent PA system howling by providing more gain before feedback, and this is a typical case in which the correct microphone choice should come before twisting any EQ knobs on the mixer. One hallmark of inexperienced sound operators is that they tend to think that EQ knobs only turn to the right.

Levels and power

Microphone lines carry weak, tiny signals that are vulnerable to inductive noise and hum from motors, lighting dimmer packs and ground loops. Balanced lines help reject induced noise. However, the best defense against background AC hum and other sound system trash is to kick up the signal level at the earliest possible point with a preamp.

A good battery-operated preamp can sometimes be placed inside a podium and supply the phantom power necessary for condenser mics. Most include a limiter, and gain can be adjusted, usually in 5db to 10dB steps. Many of the newer digital snakes also have preamps built into the snake head, and these may be remotely operated. Any time a mic signal is being split for separate house, broadcast or stage monitor feeds, the splitter should include a direct path for mixer-supplied phantom power and a transformer isolated path with a switchable ground lifter. Every sound kit needs to have one because it can also be used to isolate powered speakers and other sound gear that may get its power from an AC source incompatible with that running the main mixer. Phantom power levels typically run from 12V to 48V, and the higher the original sound levels, the higher the voltage on the phantom power that may need to be used. Podium microphones for normal speech can usually get by on 12V phantom power.

Coincident pair

Among the more frequently used techniques of mic placement for stereo recording is the coincident pair using two cardioid pattern microphones angled at about 90 degrees with the capsules placed as closely together as possible without touching. This works particularly well for recording sources that are spread out over a wide area, such as symphony orchestras, studio audiences and crowds at sports events. (See Figure 1.)

Figure 1. Stereo Mics Select image to enlarge

Parabolic mics used on football games can also have a noticeable effect on the crowd ambience because they are normally heavy on upper middle frequencies due to the size of the parabolic bowl. Parabolic mic faders should be treated like an airplane throttle — smoothly up and smoothly down.

Panel talk with lapel mics

The electret condenser lapel mics used on talk shows can be either omnidirectional or cardoid, but once again there is a trade-off. With half a dozen guests on the set, cardioids sound less reverberant but usually require pop filters.

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Television Journalism

News

 

The journalism's role at the time was to act as a mediator or translator between the public and policy making elites. The journalist became the middleman. When elites spoke, journalists listened and recorded the information, edited it, and passed it on to the public for their consumption. His reasoning behind this was that the public was not in a position to deconstruct the growing and complex flurry of information present in modern society, and so an intermediary was needed to filter news for the masses. The public is not smart enough to understand complicated, political issues. Furthermore, the public was too consumed with their daily lives to care about complex public policy. Therefore the public needed someone to interpret the decisions or concerns of the elite to make the information plain and simple. The journalist's role was to inform the public of what the elites were doing. It was also to act as a watchdog over the elites, as the public had the final say with their votes.

Journalists should do more than simply pass on information. He believed they should weigh the consequences of the policies being enacted. Over time, his idea has been implemented in various degrees, and is more commonly known as "community journalism".

This concept of community journalism is at the centre of new developments in journalism. In this new paradigm, journalists are able to engage citizens and the experts/elites in the proposition and generation of content.

journalism's first loyalty is to the citizenry, journalists are obliged to tell the truth and must serve as an independent monitor of powerful individuals and institutions within society. The essence of journalism is to provide citizens with reliable information through the discipline of verification, as well providing a forum for public criticism.

Television

Television (TV) news is considered by many to be the most influential medium for journalism. For most of the American public, local news and national TV newscasts are the primary news sources. Not only the numbers of audience viewers, but the effect on each viewer is considered more persuasive, as described by Marshall McLuhan ("the medium is the message" in his book Understanding Media). Television is dominated by attractive, with short soundbites and fast "cuts" (changes of camera angle). Television journalism viewership has become fragmented, with the 24-hour united States cable news television channels such as Cable News Network (CNN) starting in 1980, Fox News Channel and MSNBC in the 1990s.

Local Television

The industry divides television into local .  Such television markets are defined by viewing area and are ranked by the number of audience viewers.

Ttypically broadcast local news 3 or 4 times a day . News anchors are shown sitting at a desk in a television studio. The news anchor read teleprompters that contain local interest stories and breaking news. Reporters frequently tell their stories outside the a formal television studio in the field, where the news is occurring, in a remote broadcast setting where Electronic news-gathering (ENG) techniques are used with production trucks.  Daytime television or morning shows include more "soft" news and feature pieces, while the evening news emphasizes "hard" news.

News anchors, serve as masters of ceremonies and are usually shown facing a professional video camera in a television studio while reading unseen teleprompters. The anchors are often in pairs (co-anchors) sit side by side, often alternating their reading. Meteorologists stand in front of chroma key backgrounds to describe weather forecasting and show "graphics" (maps, charts, and pictures). Any of those people can become the most recognizable television personality of the television station. Reporters research and write the stories and sometimes use video editing to prepare the story for air into a "package". Reporters are usually engaged in Electronic field production (EFP) and are accompanied by a videographer at the scenes of the news. The latter holds the camera. That person or assistants manage the audio and lighting. They are in charge of setting up live television shots and might edit using a non-linear editing system  too. The segment producer might choose, research, and write stories, as well as deciding the timing and arrangement of the newscast. An associate producer, if any, might specialize in elements of the show such as graphics.

Production

A newscast director is in charge of television show preparation, including assigning camera and talent positions on the set, as well as selecting the camera shots and other elements for either recorded or live television video production. The Television Director operates the video switcher which controls and mixes all the elements of the show. At smaller stations, the Director and Technical Director are the same person.

A graphics operator operates a character generator that produces the lower third on-screen titles and full-page digital on-screen graphics. The audio technician operates the audio mixing console. The technician is in charge of the microphones, music, and audio tape. Often, production assistants operate the teleprompters and professional video cameras, and serve as lighting and rigging technicians ("grips").

Interactive

Convergence is the sharing and cross-promoting of content from a variety of media, which in theory might all converge and become one medium eventually. In broadcast news, the Internet is key part of convergence. Frequently, broadcast journalists also write text stories for the Web, usually accompanied by the graphics and sound of the original story. Web sites offer the audience an interactive form where they can learn more about a story, can be referred to related articles, can offer comments for publication, and can print stories at home, etc. Technological convergence also lets newsrooms collaborate with other media. Broadcast outlets sometimes have partnerships with their print counterparts.

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The Development of the Television

Below is a timeline of the development of the television. Although television is a twentieth century invention, it is important to take into account discoveries during the nineteenth century, such as that of  the German Paul Nipkow.

In 1884, Paul Nipkow invented a system called the Nipkow disc. Although no one knew for sure if he'd built a working model, this system theoretically could scan an image by using a spinning disc with holes to direct light onto an image. The light beam would be converted into a electrical signal and was received by another disk.

1907: Boris Rosing was a Russian who experimented in St. Petersburg with the cathode ray tube invented by Karl Ferdinand Braun.

1908: A. A. Campbell-Swinton designed a system using cathode ray tubes at both ends. He published this idea in 1911. The system worked by scanning an image with a beam of electrons onto a photoelectric mosaic, which was fixed to one tube. Meanwhile, the electrical signal would be produced and would control the intensity of a second electron beam scanning the fluorescent screen.

1923: Vladimir Zworykin, one of Rosing's assistants, created the "Iconoscope." This round cathode-ray tube contained the first photoelectric mosaic made from metal particles applied to both sides of a sheet of mica. This system was not only user-friendly but more sensitive. The electron beam receives a photoelectric charge from the mosaic. Zworykin presented the iconoscope at New York in 1929 for an engineer's meeting. It was built by RCA in 1933 and scanned 120 lines at 24 frames per second.

1923-26: American Charles F. Jenkins developed a working tv system based on the Nipkow disk.

1925: In London, Scottish engineer John Logie Baird exhibited in Selfridges department store a machine which could reproduce a simple image- white letters on black background. Although the two discs were mounted on the same shaft, Baird did show that scanning was possible.

Baird and his primitive television in 1926

1926: Baird was able to reproduce the head of a person in his laboratory by scanning 30 lines at 5 frames a second.

1928: Dénes Mihály of Hungary presented his "Telehor" at the Berlin Radio Show. It scanned 30 lines at 10 frames per second. Rene' Bartholemy invented the "Semivisor" which used 30 line scanning in France.

Rene' Bartholemy

Around this time, the radio was taking root in America and tests with radio-electric transmission of television were being done. Some people built their own disc receivers and research became publicised.

1929: Baird marketed his first disc receivers, or "televisors." He continued to increase his line scanning capabilities.

1930: About this time, researchers developed the principle of interlaced scanning which explored odd-numbered, then even-numbered lines to stop flickering screens.

1931: In Germany, Manfred von Ardenne enabled transparencies to be scanned with the building of the first "flying spot" cathode-ray tube. The system was shown at the Berlin Radio Show and the scanning method was then used in all television systems. However, this system had to operate in a dimly lighted environment, therefore it's capabilities were limited.

1933: Receivers using the cathode ray tube became available on the market. Also this year, receivers using cathode ray tubes came into the market. This was because the industry had developed techniques to achieve a very great vacuum in tubes.

1934: 343-line definition was reached and interlacing was being used. Also, Isaac Schoenberg, a Russian emigrant, developed a camera tube similar to the iconoscope in the EMI company. The system was dubbed the Emitron and used interlacing. EMI was aiming at scanning more lines than RCS, as much as 405 lines.

Isaac Schoenberg

1935: Paris used a mechanical system to broadcast at 180 lines at 25 frames per second.

1936: The Berlin Olympic Games were broadcast by Electronic cameras.

"Iconoscope" camera at the Berlin Olympics, 1936

1940: Peter Goldmark of CBS came up with a sequential three-filter system for using three primary colors obtained by using three color filters placed in the light path before scanning. This system was not practical.

Goldmark's three-filter system

1953: Both RCA and Hazeltine laboratories discovered a compatible system. The National Television System Committee standardised it. The signal in transmitted as a combination of the primary colors and has a "luminance" signal that is compatible with black and white receivers. The color signal, ("chrominance") is combined with the "luminance" signal for transmission. The color is defined by three parameters: hue, saturation (pure or washed-out), and brightness.

NTSC system: Today, we continue to create new and better ways of viewing television, yet the old systems, such as the NTSC, are used as basic structure to improve upon, such as HDTV. HDTV is defined as a television system that differs from current television systems in that it's five times the increase in visual information detail, 10 times the color information, more than double the horizontal and vertical resolution, substantial improvement in picture brightness, over a one-third increase in aspect ratio, and sound quality equivalent to digital compact disc audio

Cable television

Cable television, formerly known as Community Antenna Television or CATV, was born in the mountains of Pennsylvania in 1948. Community antenna television was started by John Walson and Margaret Walson in the spring of 1948. 

John Walson has been recognized by the U.S. Congress and the National Cable Television Association as the founder of the cable television industry. John Walson was also the first cable operator to use microwave to import distant television stations, the first to use coaxial cable for improved picture quality, and the first to distribute pay television programming (HBO). 

The very first prototype for a plasma display monitor was invented in July 1964 at the University of Illinois by professors Donald Bitzer and Gene Slottow, and then graduate student Robert Willson. However, it was not until after the advent of digital and other technologies that successful plasma televisions became possible.

During the early sixties, the University of Illinois used regular televisons as computer monitors for their in-house computer network. By July of 1964, the team had built the first plasma display panel with one single cell. Today's plasma televisions use millions of cells.

After 1964, television broadcast companies considered developing plasma television as an alternative to televisions using cathode ray tubes. However, LCD or liquid crystal displays made possible flat screen television that squelched the further commercial development of plasma display. It took many years for plasma televisons to became successful and they finally did due to the efforts of Larry Weber. University of Illinois author Jamie Hutchinson wrote that Larry Weber's prototype sixty inch plasma display, developed for Matsushita and bearing the Panasonic label, combined the size and resolution necessary for HDTV with the addition of thinness.

IPTV technology supports the transmission of standard television video programs over the Internet and Internet Protocol (IP). IPTV allows a television service to be integrated with a broadband Internet services and share the same home Internet connections.  IPTV requires high-speed Internet connectivity due to the high bandwidth requirements of digital video. Being connected to the Internet would in theory allow IPTV users more control over their television programming and ability to customize it to their preferences. 

More than just technology, the term "IPTV" represents a broad-based effort in the telecommunications and media industry to build a worldwide video creation and distribution environment.

Web Television: The History of WebTV WebTV was invented in 1996 by Diba Inc and Zenith Electronics.

"Zenith Electronics is planning a television set that will incorporate a microprocessor and modem. Also Diba Inc planned to developed a  technology that allows viewers to surf the Web via a remote control device." 

In April of 1997, Microsoft bought the WebTV network for $425 million dollars and have trademarked the name. Today, webtv is an add-on device that compliments a regular television, usually a box that provides the internet connection and conversion of web pages for viewing on your own television screen with an added special remote control and keyboard so that you can surf from your sofa in comfort.

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TV History

The television has become such an integral part of homes in the modern world that it is hard to imagine life without television. The television provides entertainment to people of all ages. Not just for entertainment value, but TV is also a valuable resource for advertising and different kinds of programming.

Different experiments by various people, in the field of electricity and radio, led to the development of basic technologies and ideas that laid the foundation for the invention of television. 

These are just some of the many firsts that were, and continue to be associated with the television industry. 

Television was not invented or created by any one person. The ideas and innovations of several people led to the invention of television.  Although it is virtually impossible to say who invented television, there were significant contributions by some people in this field, because of which they have got the distinction of being called pioneers in the invention of TV. Here’s a look at some of these early inventors of TV

In the late 1800s, Paul Gottlieb Nipkow, a student in Germany, developed the first ever mechanical module of television. He succeeded in sending images through wires with the help of a rotating metal disk. This technology was called the ‘electric telescope’ that had 18 lines of resolution. It is called by mechanical television. Around 1907, two separate inventors, A.A. Campbell-Swinton from England and Russian scientist Boris Rosing, used the cathode ray tube in addition to the mechanical scanner system, to create a new television system.

 From the experiments of Nipkow and Rosing, two types of television systems came into existence: mechanical and electronic television.  By 1934, all television systems had converted into the electronic system, which is what is being used even today.

When 1946, the Second World War Black and white television was thought of as old and it was time to do something new. This is when color television systems first began to be considered seriously. 

In America, the color television war was fought by two giants in the television industry CBS and RCA. CBS was the first to develop a color television system that was mechanical. This system was inspired by John Baird’s ideas of color TV. Color television was thus a reality, but this first system was not compatible with any black and white television sets.

By 1950, the FCC had announced the CBS color system as the national standard, and by 1951, CBS had started color broadcasts in the East Coast of the US. Not to be left behind, RCA sued CBS as their system could not be used with the millions of black and white televisions across America, most of which were RCA sets. 

The Korean War and the very public television war gave RCA time to develop a better color TV system than CBS. Their system was not mechanical like that of CBS but electronic and far superior. Finally, by 1953, FCC gave the nod to their color television system and color TV sets of RCA were available to the buying public from 1954 onwards. 

The television has come a long way from its initial avatar, that of a radio with visual projection capabilities. Since then, till now, the television industry has witnessed many firsts. Here’s looking at some first facts on television.

First Facts On Television Stations and Television Sets

• The first mechanical television station in America was called W3XK. This station was the brainchild of Charles Francis Jenkins, who is also remembered as the father of American television. The station aired its first broadcast on 2nd July, 1928. 
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• WRGB television station in New York is the first American station that has the honor of being a continuously operating station from 1926, when television was invented, till date. The station began as W2XB, but the name was changed to WRGB in 1942, in memory of Mr. Walter R. G. Baker, who was a leader in the radio and television industry. 
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• The first commercially produced television sets were based on the mechanical television system. These sets were made from John Baird’s designs for television. The sets were shown to the public in September of 1928.
• The first ever American electronic television sets were produced in 1938 and were an instant hit. 
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• The first ever remote control for television was invented in 1948. Known as the ‘Tele Zoom’, it cannot be called a remote control in the true sense of the word, as the device could only enlarge the picture on the tube and not change any channels or turn the television set on and off. The Flash-matic from Zenith, produced in 1955, was the first ever real remote control that could do all of the above and was completely wireless. 
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•  ‘The Queen’s Messenger’ is believed to be the first television program in America. It was broadcast by WRGB station in 1928. We say believed because the program was broadcast to only 4 television sets in existence at the time, and thus the ambiguity.
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• 1st July, 1941 is the day when the first ever commercial broadcast took place in America. The FCC, day were regarded as experimental thus making this day very important in American TV history. 
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• 1st July, 1941 is also the day when the first American advertisement was aired. The commercial was for a Bulova Watch and lasted all of 10 seconds. It was aired on the NBC network.

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SPIRAL OF SILENCE

 It is introduced by Elizabeth Noelle and Neumann in 1984. It is very important and controversial  theory also and a form of   Agenda Setting Theory.

SPIRAL OF SILENCE http://rodrigo75.wordpress.com/2010/11/07/the-spiral-of-silence-and-selective-mutism/

Public opinion is the concept of the Spiral of Silence also  it describe the process of public opinion formation.    It Focused on Macro level rather than micro level consequences. 

 It may find out the view he hold or losing ground. Observations made in one context spread to another and encouraged people either to proclaim their views or swallow them to keep quiet until. 

A spiral of Silence is a process here the one view dominated the public scene and the other disappeared from public awareness as it supporter became mute.  In other words because of people when they are in the minority, fear of isolation or separation from those around them, they tend to keep their attitudes to themselves.

Reason for Spiral of Silence

The Media because of a variety of factors, tend to present one side of an issue to uncover and register that opposing view Which further encourages those people to keep quiet. 

Strength of Spiral of Silence

It has Macro and Micro level explanatory theory. 

It is dynamic theory.

Accounts for in Public Opinion especially during campaign.

Raises important questions concerning the role and responsibility of news media

Weakness

It has overly pessimistic view of media influence on average people.

Ignores other simpler explanations of silencing

Ignore possible demographic in cultural differences in the silencing effect

Degrade power of community to counteract than silencing effect.

Criticism 

Product of Bandwagon effect or Production

Depend upon the individual factors, if you feel very strongly about the issue you might not want to remain silent even if isolation  is a threat.

It is faulted and underestimating the power of the people communities organization

Noelle Newman’s research to the American Situation and the media can actually move people to speak up rather than remain silent.

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