The Theory of Performance (ToP) develops and relates six foundational concepts  to form a framework that can be used to explain performance as well as performance improvements. 

To perform is to produce valued results. A performer can be an individual or a group of people engaging in a collaborative effort.

 Developing performance is a journey, and level of performance describes location in the journey. 

Current level of performance depends holistically on 6 components: 

1. context, 
2. level of knowledge, 
3. levels of skills,
4.  level of identity, 
5. personal factors, and 
6. fixed factors.

 Three axioms are proposed for effective performance improvements. These involve a performer’s mindset, immersion in an enriching environment, and engagement in reflective practice. A theory of performance (ToP) is useful in many learning contexts. 

Traditional Contexts 

A theory of performance(ToP) informs learning in classrooms, workshops, and other venues that are traditionally associated with learning. 

Non-traditional Contexts 

A ToP informs learning in contexts that are not traditionally conceptualized as learning environments. Examples of these contexts include academic advising, self development, departments, academic committees, professional research groups, colleges. 

Organizational Learning

 A ToP informs learning by organizations through the idea of examining the “level of performance” of the organization. Performance 

To perform is to take a complex series of actions that integrate skills and knowledge to produce a valuable result. 

In some instances, the performer is an individual. In other performances, the performer is a collection of people who are collaborating such as an academic department, research team, committee, student team, or a university.

 Level of Performance Performance,  is a “journey not a destination.” The location in the journey is labeled as “level of performance.” Each level characterizes the effectiveness or quality of a performance. 

• As a lawyer improves her level of performance, she can conduct legal research faster, more thoroughly, and more in-depth. 

• As an academic department improves its level of performance, the members of the department are able to produce more effective student learning, more effective research, and a more effective culture. 

• As a manager advances his level of performances, he is able to organize people and resources more effectively and to get higher quality results in a shorter time. 

• As a teacher advances his levels of performance, he is able to produce deeper levels of learning, improved levels of skill development, and more connection with the discipline for larger classes while spending less time doing this. 

• As an actor improves his level of performance, he is able to learn parts quicker, play more varied roles, and produce an deeper and more meaningful impact on audiences. Performance advancing through levels is shown in Figure 1 where the labels “

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Organizational Change Theory

Organizational change theory is also known as stage theory, change management or organizational change management (OCM). It is a multidisciplinary field of study that seeks to understand and explain how organizations implement change and undergo a transformational process.

The ultimate goal of organizational change management is to find the best strategies for leading successful transformations within an organization. It's all about navigating the twists and turns of shifting structures, systems, cultures and behaviors to adapt to different pressures and seize exciting new opportunities.

This theory serves as a valuable guide for leaders, managers and business professionals who need to foster resilience and promote sustainable growth in today's dynamic business landscape.

Organizational Theory of Change is a methodical approach to planning, implementing, and evaluating organizational change initiatives. It provides a roadmap for organizations to move from their current state to a desired future state by outlining the logical sequence of steps required to achieve long-term goals.

The Importance of Theory of Change in Organizational Development

The Theory of Change (TOC) is an essential framework for strategic planning in organizations. It helps align activities with long-term visions and missions, leading to improved decision-making at all organizational levels.

By clearly outlining the path to change, TOC enhances communication, providing a common language for stakeholders to discuss and understand the change process. Additionally, it fosters increased accountability by setting clear metrics and milestones and allows for adaptive management by offering a clear view of the change process. This makes organizations more flexible and responsive to changing circumstances.

Key Components of a Theory of Change

A well-developed Theory of Change typically includes several key components. The long-term goal represents the ultimate impact or change the organization aims to achieve. Preconditions or intermediate outcomes are the necessary and sufficient conditions that must be in place for the long-term goal to be realized. Interventions or activities refer to the specific actions or strategies the organization will implement to bring about the desired change.

How does organizational change get started?

Let's take a look at some of the usual suspects:

• Technological advancements
• Market forces
• Changes in regulatory or legal requirements
• Economic factors
• Internal pressures, size changes or acquisitions
• External stakeholder expectations

These drivers of change vary in importance depending on the industry, the specific organization and what's happening in the world. Understanding these drivers helps organizations stay on their toes, ready to recognize when a moment for change has arrived.

 

Types of organizational change

some common types of organizational changes:

1. Strategic change

This type of change focuses on the big picture, involving shifts in the organization's overall direction and long-term goals. It happens when the organization adapts its mission, vision, strategy or core processes to respond to external changes or explore new opportunities.

2. Structural change

This involves implementing changes to how the organization is organized (strategy structure systems). It can include things like changing the hierarchy, reporting relationships, departments or how work is divided among teams. The aim is to improve efficiency, communication and coordination within the organization.

3. Cultural change

Cultural change revolves around transforming the values, beliefs, norms and behaviors that shape the company culture. The goal is to create a new culture that aligns with the desired vision, encouraging collaboration, innovation, adaptability or customer focus.

4. Process change

Process change improved the organization's operational processes and workflows. It aims to make things more efficient, reduce costs, eliminate unnecessary steps or enhance quality by adopting new technologies, streamlining procedures or following best practices.

5. Technological change

This type of change introduces or integrates new technologies within the organization. This could mean implementing new software systems, automation, digital tools or advanced machinery (ex: utilizing AI)to boost productivity, drive innovation or support day-to-day operations.

6. Personnel change

Personnel change emphasizes developing and enhancing the skills, knowledge and capabilities of individuals within the organization. It may involve training programs, talent development initiatives, performance management systems or planning for future leaders to foster personal and organizational growth.

7. Incremental change

Incremental change happens gradually over time, short term wins here, short term wins there. This involves small improvements or refinements to existing processes, products or services. The goal is to continuously enhance efficiency, quality or customer satisfaction through ongoing adjustments.

8. Transformational change

Transformational change is a significant and radical shift that fundamentally transforms the organization. These are large scale changes. It often requires a comprehensive and holistic approach to drive substantial organizational development to create a new status quo.

 

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Social Judgement Theory

Social judgment theory (SJT) is a self-persuasion theory proposed by Carolyn Sherif, Muzafer Sherif, and Carl Hovland, as the perception and evaluation of an idea by comparing it with current attitudes.

Social Judgement theory states that you have a statement or message and you accept it or reject it based on your cognitive map, one's own ego-involvement and if it falls within their latitude of acceptance.

 This theory is that when people receive messages (verbal or nonverbal) they immediately judge where the message should be placed on a scale in their mind through comparing the message with currently held views.

Social Judgement theory is a scientific theory.  Social Judgement theory is value-neutral in that the theoretical propositions are objective and not biased.  This theory explains how individuals judge the messages they receive.  It predicts that individuals accept, or reject specific attitudes and messages.

• Epistemologically( the study of the nature, origin, and limits of human knowledge,) are is one universal interpretation (one truth) in that people judge the messages they receive.  

• Ontologically,(the philosophical study of being.)  this theory is deterministic in that an individuals behavior can be predicted.
• Axiologically(the study of the nature, types, and criteria of values and of value judgments especially in ethics.),   Social Judgement theory has relative simplicity in that it is a fairly simple study.  It can be tested and proved false in that an individual can test the theory through reflecting on statements, which evoke various opinions.  

 

Critique:

Social Judgement theory proposes the idea that persuasion is a two-step process. 

1. The first step involves individuals hearing or reading a message and immediately evaluating where the message falls within their own position. 
2. The second step involves individuals adjusting their particular attitude either toward or away from the message they heard.

Ideas and Implications:

Individuals have three zones in which they accept or reject specific messages or attitudes. 

1. The latitude of acceptance zone is where individuals place attitudes they consider acceptable.  
2. The latitude of rejection zone is where individuals place attitudes they consider unacceptable or objectionable.  
3. The latitude of noncommitment is where people place attitudes they find neither acceptable nor rejectable.

Example:

Example of Social Judgement theory:

Read through these statements and recognize the variety of opinions they represent;

1. Student athletes should be given extra time to complete assignments.

2. Student athletes are for the most part lazy when it comes to college work.

3. Student athletes should receive more time to complete assignments because their schedule is more hectic than the average student.

 

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Social Action Theory

 Sociologist Max Weber developed social action theory.

Definition of Social Action Theory

 Social action theory in sociology is a critical theory that holds that society is a construction of the interactions and meanings of its members.  It explains human behaviour at a microscopic, small-scale level through which we can understand societal structures. 

This is because social action theory argues that society is made up of human behaviour and that people create and embed meaning into institutions. On the other hand, structural theories are based on the idea that society is made up of institutions and that these institutions shape and give meaning to human behaviour.

 Social action theory states that people create society, institutions, and structures. People determine society, not the other way around. Society is created 'from the bottom up'.

 Weber attributes this to the fact that norms and values are not fixed but flexible. He argues that individuals give them meaning, and have a much more active influence in shaping society than structuralist theorists assume.

 Weber only considered an action to be 'social' if it took into account the behaviour of other people, because that also contributes to the creation of meaning. 

He also believed that we should practise understanding, i.e., empathy, to understand the meaning behind people's actions. He specified two kinds of understanding

Social Action And Understanding

According to Weber, social action should be the primary focus of sociology. Social action is the term for an action behind which an individual attaches meaning.

Positive aspects of social action theory

• Social action theory acknowledges individual agency and motivations for change and impact on society. It allows for large-scale structural change.
• The theory does not see the individual as a passive entity in a societal structure. Instead, the individual is viewed as an active member and shaper of society.

It can help trace significant structural changes throughout history by considering the meanings behind social actions.

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Braddock’s Derivation of Lasswell’s Model

 Harold Lasswell’s Model (1948)

 Harold Dwight Lasswell (1902–1978) was a leading American political scientist and communications theorist. He was the Chief of the Experimental Division for the Study of War Time Communications at the Library of Congress during the Second World War. He analysed Nazi propaganda films to identify mechanisms of persuasion used to secure the acquiescence and support of the German populace for Hitler. He gave verbal models of communication and politics in the same year when Shannon wrote his paper on mathematical theory. 

His model of communication is in the shape of a question containing many more questions. 

Who says

 What to Whom 

in What Channel 

with What effect? 

This linear model enumerates main variables involved in the process of communication. 

The ‘Who’ refers to the identification of the source and

 ‘What’ refers to the analysis of the content of the message. 

The choice of channel is denoted by the question ‘What channel’ and the characteristics of the audience by the question ‘Whom’. 

The main thing about this model is that it makes the end result of communication as the most important aspect of the whole process, when Lasswell asks ‘What effect?’ 

In a way, this model of communication appears to be influenced to a large extent by the behaviourism which was the newly developing trend in America those days. 

Behaviourism is a school of psychology that supports that behaviours can be influenced by conditioning. Laswell’s model takes the psychological conditioning of individuals and society into account. 

His model of communication can also be described as the psycho-sociological model of communication because it deals with the psychological and sociological aspects of communication. It considers what effects communication has on the recipient(s) of the message, and so it enters the domain of psychology as well as sociology.

 Braddock’s Derivation of Lasswell’s Model In 1958,

 Richard Braddock suggested that Lasswell’s model be expanded to consider two additional elements that Braddock argued that Lasswell’s model ignored ‘for what purpose’ and ‘under what circumstances’. 

Braddock’s model is Models of Communication 

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Cognitive Dissonance Theory

Cognitive dissonance theory, proposed by The psychologist Festinger  in 1957. It focuses on the discomfort felt when holding conflicting beliefs or attitudes, leading individuals to seek consistency.  According to dissonance theory, self-esteem is threatened by inconsistency.

Cognitive dissonance is the discomfort a person feels when their behavior does not align with their values or beliefs. 

Cognitive dissonance is a psychological phenomenon that occurs when a person holds two contradictory beliefs at the same time.

 In his book “A Theory of Cognitive Dissonance,” Festinger proposed that two ideas can be consonant or dissonant. Consonant ideas logically flow from one another. Dissonant ideas oppose one another.

Examples of cognitive dissonance

Some examples of cognitive dissonance include:

Smoking

The following demonstrates how smoking can result in cognitive dissonance:

• Conflict: Many people smoke even though they know it is harmful to their health. The magnitude of the dissonance will be higher in people who highly value their health.
• Cognitive dissonance: A person may dislike the physical side effects of smoking but feel the act of smoking is relaxing and helps in other ways, such as alleviating their stress.
• Resolving cognitive dissonance: They may use nicotine replacement therapy, such as gum or patches, to feel the effects of nicotine with fewer adverse effects. This may help them cut down or quit smoking.

 

What Causes Cognitive Dissonance?

• 1. Forced Compliance Behavior
• When someone is forced to do (publicly) something they (privately) really don’t want to do, dissonance is created between their cognition (I didn’t want to do this) and their behavior (I did it). Forced compliance occurs when an individual performs an action that is inconsistent with his or her beliefs.
• 
  
• 2. Decision Making

Life is filled with decisions, and decisions  arouse dissonance. For example, suppose you had to decide whether to accept a job in film industry.  If you took the job in film industry you would miss your immediate earning; if you turned the job down, you would not get the fame in future.

3. Effort

It also seems to be the case that we value most highly those goals or items which have required considerable effort to achieve.  This is probably because dissonance would be caused if we spent a great effort to achieve something and then evaluated it negatively.

Cognitive Dissonance Theory Assumptions

Here are the main assumptions of the Cognitive Dissonance Theory:

• People have an innate drive for consistency among their cognitions. Cognitions include attitudes, beliefs, values, knowledge, and perceptions. When there is inconsistency or discrepancy among cognitions, it results in psychological discomfort, known as cognitive dissonance.
• Cognitive dissonance is an aversive (causing strong dislike) drive state that motivates people to regain consistency and reduce dissonance. When cognitions are  inconsistent, individuals feel the need to align their cognition and resolve the inconsistency to achieve unity and reduce discomfort.
• The magnitude of dissonance and the desire to reduce it depends on the importance of the cognitions. The more relevant and significant the inconsistent cognitions are, the greater the need to resolve the dissonance and achieve consistency.
• People are motivated to reduce cognitive dissonance through various strategies: changing attitudes, adding new cognitions, discounting the importance of certain cognitions, avoiding dissonant information, and focusing on consonant information. These strategies help align cognitions and regain consistency.
• Once unity is achieved, the dissonance is reduced, and the drive state is eliminated. People then feel psychological comfort once their cognitions are in harmony and consistent.

 Cognitive Dissonance Theory Limitations

Here are the main limitations of the Cognitive Dissonance Theory have been stated below.

• It focuses too much on rational methods and underrates the role of emotion. Dissonance reduction strategies may be driven more by affective and emotional factors rather than purely rational processes.
• People can tolerate and live with certain denials.
• It overestimates people's awareness of cognitive dissonance. Many instances of dissonance may operate below conscious awareness, and people may not realize they are engaging in dissonance reduction strategies.
•  Some people seem to be more bothered by inconsistencies than others. The theory does not account for these differences.
• The theory does not provide a framework for quantifying the magnitude of dissonance in different cases.
• Dissonance reduction systems are more complex than the theory suggests
• The impact of the social environment is underemphasized. Social and cultural factors influence dissonance and strategies for reducing it.
• The theory focuses mainly on cognitive change and does not consider the role of behavioural change in dissonance reduction. Behavioural adjustment may also be used to resolve inconsistencies.

https://www.simplypsychology.org/cognitive-dissonance.html 

https://testbook.com/ugc-net-commerce/dissonance-theory

https://www.simplypsychology.org/cognitive-dissonance.html

Cognitive Dissonance Theory

1. Who proposed the theory of cognitive dissonance?
2. What is cognitive dissonance?
3. What is the relationship between cognitive dissonance and self-esteem?

Examples of Cognitive Dissonance

1. How can smoking lead to cognitive dissonance?
2. How can people resolve cognitive dissonance related to smoking?

Causes of Cognitive Dissonance

1. What is forced compliance behavior?
2. How can decision-making lead to cognitive dissonance?

Cognitive Dissonance Theory Assumptions

1. What is the innate drive for consistency among cognitions?
2. How does the magnitude of dissonance influence the desire to reduce it?

Cognitive Dissonance Theory Limitations

1. What is a major limitation of the theory in terms of emotion?
2. What does the theory underestimate about people's awareness of cognitive dissonance?

Cognitive dissonance theory, while influential, has several limitations:

Overemphasis on Rationality

• Underplays Emotional Factors: The theory often focuses too much on rational methods and underestimates the role of emotions in dissonance reduction.
• Individual Differences: Some people may be more tolerant of inconsistencies than others, which the theory doesn't fully address.

Limited Awareness

• Subconscious Dissonance: Many instances of dissonance may operate below conscious awareness, making it difficult to measure or study.

Simplicity

• Complexity of Dissonance Reduction: Dissonance reduction strategies are often more complex than the theory suggests, involving a wider range of tactics.

Neglect of Social Factors

• Cultural Influence: The theory underemphasizes the impact of social and cultural factors on dissonance and its resolution.

Focus on Cognitive Change

• Behavioral Change: The theory primarily focuses on cognitive change to reduce dissonance, neglecting the role of behavioral adjustments.

Difficulty in Quantification

• Measuring Dissonance: The theory doesn't provide a clear framework for quantifying the magnitude of dissonance in different cases.

Overestimation of Consistency Drive

• Tolerance for Inconsistency: Some people may be more willing to tolerate inconsistencies than others, challenging the theory's assumption of a strong drive for consistency.

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Multimedia Learning Theory

Multimedia is the use of multiple presentation tools or techniques to deliver information. Audio and visual presentation technologies provide an effective set of tools for instructors and instructional designers to communicate with learners. 

Multimedia Learning Theory (MMLT) was originally developed by Richard Mayer in 1997.  It falls under the grand theory of Cognitivism.  

Mayer’s multimedia learning theory provides an informative set of principles that can be used to create effective instructional message design.According to Mayer (1997), multimedia learning theory consists of three aspects that help students learn more effectively. Multimedia learning theory describes how the designers of instructional messages, systems, and learning environments can optimize learning.  

 

The first one is that there are two channels, namely audio and visual, for information processing; this is also known as the multimedia principle. This principle states that students may learn better from images and words than just from words.

The second aspect is that each channel has a limited capacity to process information. In other words, human beings can only process information in limited amounts, and they try to understand the information by creating mental representations from the information sources.

The last aspect is that learning is an active process of filtering, selecting, organizing, and integrating information based on existing knowledge.

Mayer (2002) also stated that the process of transferring knowledge from two channels (audio and visual) could be successful when information is integrated with existing knowledge. 

Multimedia learning theory describes a series of processes that are taking place as a student is creating a new schema (Mayer, Heiser, & Lonn, 2001).  

The first step in the learning process is the initial viewing and listening to instructional content and the immediate storage of that information in short term memory.  

In this step, text is essentially visual words that when presented with diagrams then both the diagrams and the text are processed by the visual processing channel.  When words are presented via audio, the narration is instead processed by the audio processing channel, while visuals are processed by the visual channel.  The intrinsic content is separated from the extraneous content in the first phase of working memory.  

Next, the remaining germane resources in working memory create relationships between the visual and verbal information and recalls associated previous knowledge from long-term memory.  Recalled schema is then compared to new information where the learner creates understanding.  Finally, new schema can be created, or existing schema modified, and stored in long-term memory

In this step, text is essentially visual words that when presented with diagrams then both the diagrams and the text are processed by the visual processing channel.  When words are presented via audio, the narration is instead processed by the audio processing channel, while visuals are processed by the visual channel. 

 Multimedia learning theory describes two cognitive processing channels available to our learners, one for processing auditory information and one for processing visual information, and the result is the modification or development of new schemata in long-term memory, or learning 

Multimedia design principles are guidelines that help educators and instructional designers create effective and engaging learning materials using various media formats. 

These principles focus on optimizing the presentation of information to enhance comprehension, retention, and overall learning experience.

 By considering the cognitive processes involved in learning and the way humans process information, multimedia design principles help create learning materials that are more engaging and accessible to learners with diverse needs and preferences

Mayer’s multimedia learning theory provides an informative set of principles that can be used to create effective instructional message design. 

By the early 2000s, Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning had solidified into three main principles (Mayer & Moreno, 2003).  The first principle is the assumption that learners have independent channels for verbal and visual information and using both channels simultaneously is more efficient than using either channel alone.  The second principle is that the two processing channels in working memory have limited capacity for both short-term storage and active processing.  The third principle is that for learning to occur, working memory must actively process, pull previous information, and create and store new or modified schema into long-term memory .

Foundational Principles: 

1. The Dual Channels principle, states that our learners have two independent cognitive systems for processing visual and auditory information,

 2. The Limited Capacity principle, states that our learners have limited working memory resources, and 

3. The Active Processing principle, which states that to learn students need to focus on relevant information, organize that information for themselves, and relate that information to previous schemata. 

chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://digitalcommons.odu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1002&context=instructional_message_design#:~:text=Multimedia%20learning%20theory%20describes%20the,and%20visuals%20in%20a%20presentation.&text=1)%20Dual%20coding%2C%202),for%20learning%20are%20fundamental%20principles.

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Domestication Theory

 

The domestication theory is primarily associated with the fields of technology studies and media studies, though it also extends to anthropology, sociology, and communication studies. This theory explains how technologies are integrated into everyday life and how individuals or societies adapt and make them "domestic" or familiar.

Key Concepts in Domestication Theory:

1. Technologies Become Part of Everyday Life:

   • Domestication theory describes the process through which a new technology (such as the internet, mobile phones, or appliances) transitions from something novel or foreign to something familiar, everyday, and integrated into daily routines.

2. Stages of Domestication: The process of domestication is often divided into several stages:

   • Appropriation: This is the stage where people first acquire or take possession of the technology. It could involve purchasing it or being introduced to it.
   • Objectification: In this stage, the technology is given a place in the household or environment. It is integrated into the space and lifestyle of the user.
   • Incorporation: Here, the technology starts to become part of the daily routines and activities of the household or individual. It becomes embedded in how they work, communicate, or live.
   • Conversion: This final stage refers to the technology being fully integrated and accepted in the broader social context. It may also involve adapting and customizing the technology for personal or local needs.

3. Cultural Adaptation:

   • Technologies are adapted according to cultural, social, and individual needs. People use technologies in ways that suit their social structures, beliefs, and everyday practices. The ways technologies are "domesticated" may vary widely across different societies or demographic groups.

4. Control and Agency:

   • Domestication also emphasizes that people actively control how technologies are integrated into their lives. It’s not just a matter of adopting technology passively; users modify or reshape technologies to fit their needs, values, and lifestyles. This process may involve resistance or negotiation of its role in life.

5. Moral Economy:

   • The theory also talks about the "moral economy" of households, where the technology’s value and use are not just about functionality but also about norms, values, and social relationships. For instance, a technology may be valued not just for its practical use but for how it reflects a person's or family’s identity, status, or values.

Examples of Domestication Theory in Practice:

• Smartphones: When smartphones first emerged, they were seen as luxury devices for tech enthusiasts. Over time, they became essential parts of daily life. Today, people customize their smartphones with apps and settings that reflect their needs and preferences, and these devices are central to how they communicate, work, and engage with the world.

• Social Media: When social media platforms like Facebook or Instagram started, they were novel forms of communication. Over time, people integrated them into their daily routines, using them to maintain social ties, share information, and even build personal or professional identities.

In Relation to Women and Entrepreneurship:

Domestication theory could apply to the adoption of entrepreneurial technologies by women. For instance, how women entrepreneurs integrate new technologies (like e-commerce platforms or digital marketing tools) into their business operations might reflect their specific needs, challenges, and contexts. The process of domestication might involve adapting those tools to fit cultural norms, societal expectations, or the unique demands of balancing work and family life.

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313988538_What_Use_is_Domestication_Theory_to_Information_Systems_Research

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