The Role of Media, & Information and Communication Technologies in Development Communication

Information and communication technologies (ICTs; the Internet, satellites, mobile phones, wireless computers, and so forth) play a major role in devel­opment communication initiatives. The use of media in development can be treated at two levels: mass media, often using television, radio, and print media in campaigns aimed at inducing the adoption of innovations or other changes in behaviors; and community media, mainly using radio and other folk expressions such as theater, concerned with giv­ing voice and representation to the various segments of local communities. Media within a country into three groups: private, public, and community. Such a classification seems to better reflect the different nature, scope, and range of functions included within the broader media system. In the past, media systems were considered key elements in supporting the national development of poorer countries.

The media influence is not as strong as origi­nally believed, especially if it does not take the local context into account. For instance, the community radio that has emerged in recent years is often more empowering and influential than the more celebrated medium of television, at the local level. The blind faith placed on media in the past as a means to push development in poorer countries resembles the current hype for ICTs. The rise of more sophisticated communication and information technologies, such as satellites or the Internet, has opened new horizons and opportunities. But it  has not only increased the penetration of mass media, for instance, through satellites, but it has also created new opportunities to enhance communication at the local level utilizing technologies. The establishment of "tele centers" in rural areas is spreading in many countries as a way to support local development in the social and economic dimension.

However, to avoid past mistakes, media and ICTs, powerful as they are, should always be considered as tools to be used within the context of the broader social and communication environment. The effectiveness and value of ICTs and other new communication technologies are determined by the way they are selected and utilized. The research element of the communication strategy is crucial in determining the best and most effective use of media and ICTs.

There are some critical factors to consider before adopting them. These factors can be divided in three basic cate­gories: economic, technological, and cultural. 

From an economic point of view, there are high costs associated with the software and the hardware components of ICTs for individuals in developing countries, placing these commodities outside the reach of most people. In the case of the Internet, there are also access and connec­tivity costs to consider. liberation and privatization taking place in this sector in many developing countries can be a limiting factor for marginalized sectors of society, "The development of ICTs by the private sector fails in bridging the gap between the rich and the poor. The poor who are marginalized—and in some cases physically isolated—remain disconnected from the rest of society. 

From a technological point of view, it is difficult to ensure the proper operation of such technologies in places where there are no phone or electric lines. In many countries, users need basic training in computer use, and prior to that, literacy skills to communicate effectively on the Internet.

From a cultural point of view, there are also a number of constraints. The lan­guage in which most of the information is available on the Internet can pose a bar^­rier. In 1999, a survey concluded that about 86 percent of all Web pages are in English (Thussu 2000), thus precluding access to information for many users. Additionally, given the high illiteracy rate of many areas of developing countries, many potential users are excluded from the start. Even when language barriers are overcome, often cultural issues remain crucial in gaining fundamental knowledge and the needed frame of mind in order to take full advantage of the power of these technologies.

The digital divide—the division between those who have access to modern information technologies and those who don't—has become a hot one in recent years. Many development workers believe that ICTs can be the right answer to leapfrog developing countries toward a better future. The enthusiasm for these technologies is reflected in the demand for universal connectivity (Sachs 2005), but connectivity and access are only some of the issues that need to be addressed.

Many studies on the digital divide show that the information poverty gap between the have and have-nots is still a wide one , and it does not seem to be decreasing in any significant way.  Despite such shortcomings, however, media and ICTs can and do play a major role in development communication. In addition to the widely used information dissemination functions, technologies such as the Internet also have the potential to support the horizontal processes of communication. 

Source Developement communication source book paolo mefalopulos

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Major Programming Trends Television

Television programming began by borrowing genres from radio such as variety shows, sitcoms, soap operas, and newscasts. Starting in 1955. The two major branches of TV programming: entertainment and information. the two were once more distinct.

TV Entertainment: Our  Comic Culture

TV comedy is usually delivered in three formats: sketch comedy, situation comedy (sitcom), and domestic comedy.

Sketch Comedy

Sketch comedy, or short comedy skits, was a key element in early TV variety shows, which also included singers, dancers, acrobats, animal acts, and stand-up comics.  

Sketch comedy, though, had some major drawbacks. The hour-long variety series in which these skits appeared were more expensive to produce than half-hour sitcoms. Also, skits on the weekly variety shows used up new routines very quickly.

Situation Comedy

Until recently, the most dependable entertainment program on television has been the half-hour comedy series . The situation comedy, or sitcom, features a recurring cast; each episode establishes a narrative situation, complicates it, develops increas­ing confusion among its characters, and then usually resolves the complications.

 Characters are usually static and predictable, and they generally do not develop much during the course of a series. Such characters "are never troubled in profound ways." Stress, more often the result of external confusion rather than emotional anxiety, "is always funny."

DOMESTIC COMEDIES

Domestic Comedy   focus on character relationships, but they often also reflect social and cultural issues of the time in which the show is set. For example, ABC's Modern Family features three generations of a family that includes members of different ages, ethnicities, sexual orientations, and marital statuses.

Characters and settings are usually more important than complicated corners. Although an episode might offer a goofy situation as a subplot, more typically the main narrative features a personal problem or family crisis that characters have to resolve. Greater emphasis is placed on character development than on reestablishing the order that has been disrupted by confusion.

Today, domestic comedies may also mix dramatic and comedic elements. This blurring of serious and comic themes marks a contemporary hybrid, sometimes labeled dramedy.

TV Entertainment: Our Dramatic Culture

Because the production of TV entertainment was centered in Chennai City in its early days, many of its ideas, sets, technicians, actors, and directors came from theater.   The TV dramas that grew from these early influences fit roughly into two categories: the anthol­y drama and the episodic series.

Anthology Drama

Anthology dramas brought live dramatic theater to that television audience. Influ­enced by stage plays, anthologies offered new, artistically significant teleplays (scripts written for television), casts, directors, writers, and sets from one week to the next. Ex: Gracy Mohan and Balumahendra.

The anthology' drama on television ended for both economic and political reasons. First, advertisers disliked anthologies because they often presented stories containing complex human problems that were not easily resolved.    A second reason for the demise of anthology dramas was a change in audience. Anthology dramas were not as popular in this newly expanded market.

Third, anthology dramas were expensive to produce—double the cost of most other TV genres in the 1950s. Each week meant a completely new story line, as well as new writers, casts, and expensive sets. Sponsors and networks came to realize that it would be less expensive to use the same cast and set each week, and it would also be easier to build audience allegiance with an ongoing program.

Finally, anthologies that dealt seriously with the changing social landscape were sometimes labeled "politically controversial." Eventually, both sponsors and networks came to prefer less controversial programming.

Episodic Series

Abandoning anthologies, producers and writers increasingly developed episodic series, first used on radio in 1929. In this format, main characters continue from week to week, sets and locales remain the same, and technical crews stay with the program. The episodic series comes in two general types:  Chapter shows and serial programs.

Chapter shows are self-contained stories with a recurring set of main characters who confront a problem, face a series of conflicts, and find a resolution. This structure can be used in a wide range of sitcoms and dramatic genres, including adult westerns like Gunsmoke (1955-75); police/detective shows like CSI: Crime Scene Investigation (2000- ) In contrast to chapter shows,

serial programs are open-ended episodic shows; that is, most story lines continue from episode to episode. Cheaper to produce than chapter shows, employing just a few

Another type of drama is the hybrid, which developed in the early 1980s with the appearance of Hill Street Blues (1981-87). Often mixing comic situations and grim plots, this multiple-cast show looked like an open-ended soap opera.

Reality TV and Other Enduring Trends

Up to this point, we have focused on long-standing TV program trends, but many other genres have played major roles in TV's history, both inside and outside prime time. Talk shows like the Tonight Show (1954- ) have fed our curiosity about celebrities and politicians, and offered satire on politics and business

^{Source: :  AN}INTRODUCTION   EDITION              TO MASS  COMMUNICATION

Richard Campbell

Christopher R. Martin ,  Bettina Fabos

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Rogers' Diffusion of Innovation communication

The diffusion model is rooted in the modernization paradigm, characterized by the intent to use communication media and methods to persuade people to change specific behaviors. Diffusion approaches believe progress is achieved by inducing change in individuals' attitudes and behaviors. This approaches linked to the participatory model, instead, acknowledge that there can be different constructions of the same reality. No one single party has the ulti­mate truth; rather, there are a number of realities that often need to be reconciled through communication. This theoretical framework grows out of the construc­tivist perspective and carries a number of implications.

 The diffusion mode is more media- and message-oriented, while the participa­tion mode is more about dialog, investigation, and analysis. By necessity, the devel­opment communication specialist needs to be conversant with research methods of both modalities. In the initial phases of development projects and programs—inception, preparation, and design—familiarity with empirical investigation tech­niques and approaches often becomes more important than familiarity with communication media and messages.

Diffusion

Rogers (Rogers, 2005, p. 5) defines diffusion as "the process in which an innovation is communicated though certain channels over time among the members of a social system." There are four key elements that make up this definition. These interacting factors include ‘innovation’, ‘communication’, ‘time’ and ‘social system’.

 Diffusion of Innovation includes both spontaneous spread of new ideas and a planned method of propagating a new idea (Rogers, 2005, p. 6).

Four Elements of Diffusion of Innovation

Innovation

 Rogers (2005, p. 12) defines Innovation as "an idea, practice or object that has perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption." First time knowledge about a well-established practice can be perceived as ‘new,’ and an innovation, for that particular group of individuals. As Rogers said, "newness can be expressed in terms of knowledge, persuasion or a decision to adopt." It is incorrect to assume that all innovations are beneficial and that all innovations are equally adopted. The main characteristics of an innovation that significantly affect its adoption (or rejection) are (1) relative advantage (2) compatibility (3) complexity (4) trialability (5) observability. These factors will be discussed later in the chapter.

Communication Channels

Communication plays a significant role in the spread of ideas and exchange of information.  As defined by Rogers (2005, p. 18), communication is the "process by which participants create and share information with one another to reach a mutual understanding." By means of a communication channel, messages are transmitted from one individual to another. The two most powerful communication channels are the mass media and interpersonal communication. The former helps in creating awareness and spreading knowledge about an innovation, whereas, the latter is effective in creating an opinion and possible adoption or rejection of the innovation. Most effective communication takes place between individuals who have similar backgrounds such as education, socio-economic status, so forth. Such a communication is called homophilic. But, often, in diffusion of innovation, heterophilic communication occurs between an individual who has better knowledge and understanding of the innovation to an individual with lesser awareness.

Time

Time is an important factor in studying diffusion research. Time is involved in various phases of the diffusion process, namely (1) the innovation decision process; (2 )the individual innovativeness, i.e., the time taken for an individual to accept/reject an innovation as compared to others; and (3) the rate of adoption of the innovation. These intermediate time bound steps are explained later in the chapter.

Social System

A social system has a definite structure, defined as the patterned arrangements of the units in a system (Rogers, 2005, p. 25) and a set of norms.  Hence, it is clear diffusion and adoption of innovation are greatly affected by the social system and the characteristics of the individual units of that system.

Innovation and Rate of Adoption

 When any new idea is brought to our attention, the foremost tendency as humans is to put it under the microscope and dissect it. This helps us carefully understand the related features, advantages and disadvantages. It helps us make a mental picture and comprehend the innovation better. This is where the importance of understanding the attributes of an innovation comes to picture, which then affects its rate of adoption.

 Rogers (2005) defined the rate of adoption as “the relative speed with which an innovation is adopted by members of a social system”.  For instance, personal and optional innovations usually are adopted faster than the innovations involving an organizational or collective innovation-decision. Moreover, the cumulative function of the rate of adoption of an innovation is an S-Shaped curve. The S-shaped curve rises very slowly in the beginning, which implies only a few adopters. It gradually increases and then shoots up to a maximum when more than half of the adopters have adopted. It continues to rise gradually, but slowly, signifying the group of people left to adopt the innovation.

These attributes of innovation are relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability,and observability (Rogers, 2005, p. 16).

Relative Advantage

Rogers (2005, p. 219) defines relative advantage as "the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being better than the idea it supersedes."  For early adopters, innovators, and early majority social status is a highly motivating factor. The greater the relative advantages of an innovation, the greater its rate of adoption. For example, to integrate technology into education, teachers should first see its usefulness and that it betters their instruction for them to use technology (Finley, 2003). Once the adopter sees the relative advantages of an innovation, the adopter generally perceives how compatible the innovation is to their current situation. This brings us to the next attribute.

Compatibility

Compatibility is defined as "the degree to which an innovation is perceived to be consistent with the existing value system, past experiences, and needs of potential adopters."  The more compatible an innovation is, the greater the rate of adoption. 

Complexity

Some innovations are easy to understand and use while others are more difficult to comprehend. In general, the more complex an innovation, the lower the chance of it being adopted. Complexity is defined as the "degree to which an innovation is perceived as relatively difficult to understand and use." 

Trialability

Trialability is the "degree to which an innovation can be experimented on with a limited basis." When an innovation can be tried, it increases its chances of adoption. An innovation is changed according to the user feedback during the trial phase. Similarly, most of the pharmaceutical drugs have to cross a mandatory trial phase before their actual market launch. In general, adopters wish to benefit from the functional effects of an innovation, but avoid any dysfunctional effects. However, Trialability may reduce the rate of adoption.

Observability

The last characteristic of an innovation is observability, defined as "the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others." This is positively related to the rate of adoption. When we see our peers using a new technological gizmo, we are more likely to buy and try it out on our own. This shows that ideas easily observed and communicated are more likely to be adopted.

Innovation-Decision Process

This is a process that happens over time where all pros and cons of an innovation are examined and a decision is gradually reached upon either accepting or rejecting the innovation. It consists of 5 stages: knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation, and confirmation.

Knowledge Stage

This is the stage when the users or possible adopters first hear about the existence of the innovation, and then gain knowledge and understanding about its various functions. There are three types of knowledge associated with these questions: 

(a) Awareness-Knowledge: When a possible adopter seeks information regarding what the innovation is all about, has inquisitiveness that falls under the first category of knowledge. This may also motivate other adopters to seek similar information about the innovation and also lead them to ask further questions.

 (b) How-to-Knowledge: This type of knowledge enlightens the users about how to correctly use an innovation.  If the user has proper and correct how-to knowledge before the trial and adoption of the innovation, it increases the likelihood of its adoption. 

(c) Principle-Knowledge: Lack of principle knowledge may lead to misuse of an innovation and subsequent discontinuance of the same. By all this know-how knowledge, individuals are in a better position to judge the effectiveness of any innovation. But being equipped with all this knowledge does not guarantee the adoption of the innovation as it also depends on the attitude of the individual towards it.

Persuasion Stage

In the persuasion stage, an individual forms a favorable or an unfavorable attitude towards an innovation, but this attitude does not necessarily lead to adoption or rejection of the innovation.  Rogers states that the former is more cognitive or knowing, whereas the latter is more affective or feeling. It is the integral step where the user starts forming a perception about the innovation and hence, more intricately and psychologically involved.  The user continues to seek information about the innovation.

Decision Stage

In the decision stage, the individual puts his knowledge and opinion into practice and decides whether to adopt or reject an innovation. Adoption is the decision "to make full use of the innovation as the best course of action available" and rejection implies not to adopt an innovation. 

Implementation Stage

Implementation occurs when the innovation is put into practice. A person gathers all necessary information regarding the innovation and comes to a decision of adopting (or rejecting) it. Finally, in this stage it is put into practice.  The role of change agents is significant here as technical advisors as they answer various questions regarding the innovation. Implementation is a more challenging process when an organization is involved as the users are different sets of people, and often, different than the deciders. 

Confirmation Stage

The Confirmation stage involves the reinforcement of the adoption decision and integration of the new innovation within the framework of existing practices. It is also possible that the individual also decides to reverse his decision of adoption, if he comes across any conflicting views about the innovation.  For instance, mail via post has almost been replaced by e-mail correspondence; and (2) Disenchantment discontinuance is one where an innovation is rejected due to lack of performance.

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The Scope and Uses of Development Communication

Development communication into two basic modes: the "monologic" mode, based on the classical one-way communication model associated with diffusion, and the "dialogic" mode, based on the interactive two-way model, associated with participa­tory approaches. Being familiar with these two modes helps one to better under­stand which to apply under what circumstances. 

Monologic Mode: One-Way Communication for Behavior Change

The monologic mode is linked to the development communication perspective known as "diffusion."  It is based on the one-way flow of information for the purpose of disseminating information and messages to induce change. Its main intentions can be divided into two different types of applications: 

(1) communication to inform and 
(2) communication to persuade.

"Communication to inform" typically involves a linear transmission of infor­mation, usually from a sender to many receivers. It is used when raising awareness or providing knowledge on certain issues is considered enough to achieve the intended goal.  These approaches are frequently used in health initiatives. 

 Its underlying assumption is that indi­vidual attitudes and behaviors can be changed voluntarily through communication and persuasion" techniques and the related use of effective messages. 

The primary objective is for the sender to be able to persuade the receivers about the intended change.  

Dialogic Mode: Two-Way Communication for Engagement and Discovery

On the other hand, the dialogic mode is associated with the emerging participatory paradigm. It is based on the horizontal, two-way model of communication, creating a constructive environment where stakeholders can participate in the definition of problems and solutions. The main purposes of this model can be divided into two broad types of applications: 
(1) communication to assess; and 
(2) communication to empower.

"Communication to assess" is used as a research and analytical tool that,  can be used effectively to investi­gate any issue, well beyond those strictly related to the communication dimension. The power of dialogic communication is applied to engage stakeholders in explor­ing, uncovering, and assessing key issues, opportunities, and risks of both a techni­cal and political nature.

Dialogic communication is empower and effective as a problem-solving tool, also builds confidence, prevent conflicts, and addresses the issue of poverty by engaging the poorest and most marginal sectors in the process concerning issues of relevance to them. 

The overall goal of the dialogic mode is to ensure mutual understanding and to make the best use of all possible knowledge in assessing the situation, building con­sensus, and looking for appropriate solutions. By facilitating dialog with key stake­holders, this type of communication enhances the analysis and minimizes risks.

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communication Components(Strategy)

Strategic communication is uniquely situated to foster these development goals and help overcome some of the above challenges because it facilitates both individual level and societal level changes. It consists of three key approaches advocacy, social mobilisation, and  programme communication also referred to as behaviour change communication.

Strategic Communication:  is an evidence-based, results-oriented process, undertaken in consultation with the participant group(s). It  linked to other programme elements, considering the  local context,  and using of  multiplicity of communication approaches, to stimulate positive and measurable behaviour and social change.

Advocacy

Advocacy: Influencing Heart and Minds of Decision Makers Successful advocacy strategies aim to influence decision makers at various levels; at international, regional, national or district levels. Therefore, the advocacy component of the strategy should inform and motivate appropriate leaders to create a supportive environment for the programme by taking actions such as: changing policies, allocating resources, speaking out on critical issues, and initiating public discussion.

Possible results of an advocacy intervention can be targeted leaders taking actions such as:

■ Legal reform, or enactment of new law(s), or rules of business;

 ■ Policy decisions, formulation of and/or reform;

■ Administrative directives, rules; and

■ Resource mobilization, financial allocation. In addition, the advocacy component can build the capacity of leaders to become advocates themselves and speak out on issues pertinent to the programme to:

■ Strengthen political will and remove blockages;

■ Change funding priorities;

■ Support policy change; and

 ■ Address social barriers.

Social Mobilization

  Social mobilization is a process of harnessing selected partners to raise demand for or sustain progress toward a development objective.   Social mobilization enlists the participation of institutions, community networks and social and religious groups to use their membership and other resources to strengthen participation in activities at the grass-roots level.  

Examples of groups that may get involved in social mobilization include school teachers and students, religious groups, farmers' cooperatives, micro-credit groups, civil society organizations, professional associations, women's groups and youth associations. Well-planned social mobilisation efforts also seek to empower communities to take control of their own situations, including accepting or rejecting interventions.  Social mobilisation, integrated with other communication approaches, has been a key feature in numerous communication efforts worldwide.

Whether formal or non-formal, organizations selected for social mobilization should be chosen according to the following criteria:

■ Generally the group has a wide geographic spread over the country with a structure emanating from the national level down to lower levels of administration-to districts and below. Its participation in a cause can be triggered and activated at the national level.

■ The group is already known and accepted by the community targeted in the communication strategy.

Core elements of successful social mobilisation efforts and illustrates two experiences from the South Asia region – Nepal and Bangladesh - in order to further the understanding of effective planning of social mobilisation as an integral part of strategic communication processes.  Some prominent examples include: (a) Soul City’s campaign against domestic violence in South Africa, (b) the UNICEF polio eradication campaign in Uttar Pradesh.

Communication material to support the work of social mobilizers includes something to identify their role in the campaign (caps, T-shirts, bags) as well as some simple informational materials such as brochures or flash cards to help with message delivery.

Behaviour Change Communication 

Behaviour change communication involves face-to-face dialogue with individuals or groups to inform, motivate, problem-solve or plan, with the objective to promote behaviour change. Modern technology has recently enhanced the scope and reach of behaviour development communication such as radio and television 'talk shows' with phone-ins allowing for dialogue on a wider scale. The backbone of developing the behaviour change communication component of the strategy comes from a combination of data, participant and behavioural analyses and community input.

■ Which communication objectives need individualized information and problem-solving to be achieved (e.g. persuading caregivers of the importance of fully vaccinating their children)

■ Who are the most appropriate participants to conduct inter-personal communication (e.g. service providers, peer educators, NGO and government frontline workers, health workers, community leaders)

■ How will chosen communicators use inter-personal communication-(e.g. through programme activities, community meetings, house to house visits, during health clinic visits)

■ What is the capacity to undertake inter-personal communication (e.g. preparation could include sharing technical knowledge, communication skills training and encouraging the development of an appropriateoward the participant group being contacted)

■ How can the inter-personal communication activities of front line workers or volunteers be sustained? (e.g. what resources and activities are necessary for their continued motivation and support)

 ■ Have appropriate messages and materials been developed (e.g. messages which have been developed using community participation, problem solving, and dialogue) 

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Philosophy and goal of Development Communication

Development Communication is communication with a social conscience. It takes humans into account. Development communication is primarily associated with rural problems, but is also concerned with urban problems. It has two primary roles: a transforming role, as it seeks social change in the direction of higher  uality of values of society.  Development communication seeks to create an atmosphere for change, as well as providing innovations through which society may change.

Definition

Development communication has been defined in several ways by economic

development experts, sociologists and communication experts.

The terminology development communication originated in Asia.  Definitions differ from region to region depending on the definers view of development. 

Nora Quebral (1975) defined development communication as the art

and science of human communication applied to the speedy transformation of a country from poverty to a dynamic state of economic growth and makes possible greater economic and social equality and the larger fulfilment of human potential.

Development Communication is communication with a social conscience.   It takes

humans into account.  Development communication is primarily associated with rural problems, but is also concerned with urban problems. It has two primary roles: a transforming role, as it seeks social change in the direction of higher quality of values of society. In playing its roles, development communication seeks to create an atmosphere for change, as well as providing innovations through which society may change.

Philosophy and goal of Development Communication

Three main ideas which define the philosophy of development communication and make it different from general communication are:

1.  Development communication is purposive  communication, it is value-laden; and it is pragmatic.  In the development context, a tacit positive value is attached to what one communicates about, which shall motivate the people for social change.

2. Development  communication is goal-oriented. The ultimate goal of development communication is a higher quality of life for the people of a society by social and political change.

3. The goal of development communication is not purely in economic terms, but also in terms of social, political, cultural, and moral values that make a person‟s life whole, and that enable a person to attain his or her full potential. The goal of development communication in a specific society will be influenced by the ends and values of that society.

Development communication has to deal with two types of audience:

i) the communicators comprising development bureaucracy, media practitioners and professionals, and
ii) the people i.e. the audience who can be informed or uninformed; educated or semi-literate or literate.

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