KINDS OF MEDIA REPORTING

 

Various media platforms have an impact on news coverage in their respective fields according to their advantages and disadvantages. Learning writing for different news media platforms is the aim of this section.

·         Reporting for Print Media News

·         Reporting for Radio News

·         Reporting for Television News

·         Reporting for Web Media

INTRODUCTION

Writing skills

Five main categories can be used to classify the news media: Print (magazines and newspapers), electronic (radio and television), and internet (Online news portals / websites).

 

The news is presented to us in different ways by various media, but the essential facts and fundamental journalistic principles are always the same. The way that news is packaged and distributed differs in terms of style and format.

In this chapter we will learn about the difference in news coverage for various media formats like print, Television, Radio and Online media. We will discuss about basics of language and style used in reporting for various media platforms.

WHY REPORTING FOR VARIOUS MEDIA DIFFER

When creating stories, different media platforms may report the same news in different ways. The demand of the media and the target audience is what causes the differences in reporting,

.                   For example, the print media relies more on words and photographs, whereas the television news requires visuals or videos, the radio news is delivered in the form of sound and the online news can present the news using all word, video, audio and photographs.

 In print news, where space is the concern, a sentence can be about 20-25 words, whereas in broadcast news, where time is a concern, a sentence usually contains 10-15 words. Similarly, People don't read information on the Web in the same way as they read a newspaper or watch television or listen to the radio.

By the public demand newspapers, radio, television and online media to adopt different reporting style. For example, we receive a newspaper every day and it remains unchanged throughout the day. We can reread the story as much as we want. But in case of Television or Radio, the timing is important. The news need to have immediate feel. Reporting must be done on things that are happening now. Each news medium embodies a unique regime of content creation.

The processing of news in our brain is different in case of broadcast media and that in a newspaper / online media. Broadcast media like TV or Radio give only once chance to see/hear and understand the story. If anyone misses the particular visual, in case of TV, or audio, in case of Radio, then the whole news may not be understood. Whereas in case of the newspaper, even online media the reader can linger over a story or go back and re-read if something is not clear.

However, for a newspaper reporter the deadline is fixed, since newspapers are printed once a day. This gives more time to the newspaper reporter to write their story and more in-depth reporting. Similarly, the Television has the advantage of showing video and hence required fewer words than print. Websites news reporting can cover text, audio, and video information, all of the ways traditional media are transmitted. Unlike the television or newspaper, the web news portals have more interactive approach by allowing people to personally tailor the news they receive via various tools.

Different media has different approach to influence their respective audience. The audience's perceptions of authenticity and accuracy in television news are influenced by the speaker's tone, appearance, gender, and attire. Likewise, the voice tone has an impact on radio news. Perceptions are instantly formed by people depending on what they hear or see. However, readers of print and internet media are not aware of the reporter's physical characteristics. They can only infer the reporter's gender from the byline. In this case, the audience is influenced by the reporting ability and caliber of the material.

types of journalism

REPORTING FOR PRINT MEDIA & NEWS AGENCIES

The oldest type of media is print, which includes periodicals, newspapers, and other printed news sources. Even though the number of individuals reading print media is decreasing globally, many people still regularly read news magazines or newspapers. For this reason, print media is important. People who regularly read print media are more involved in society and politics. People who can read and write use print media, thus those who read it are typically well-educated.

News is gathered, processed, and produced by print media and delivered daily in only one direction. It has a set delivery frequency, such as a newspaper being printed and distributed once a day and a magazine being produced and delivered once a week. It can be geographically selective, which allows it to thoroughly cover a certain geographic area. Print media facilitates the communication of complex information since it is physically delivered to readers and allows for rereading. However, the use of motion and sound is limited in print media. Newspaper messages vie with one another to catch readers' attention.

The reader scan the headlines on a page, before reading a story. If the headline creates interest, the reader goes to the first paragraph. If that also proves interesting, the reader continues. The readers have the luxury to select the page or news to go through, skipping others in a newspaper.

The basic structure of a print media report consists of three main elements: Headline,headline Lead and Body.

1.    Hard news does not have any conclusion. The headline has to be very good and appropriate to create readers’ interest.

2.    Active and meaningful verbs should be used in writing the headline.

3.    Articles and helping verbs should be avoided.

4.    It is generally written in present tense and future tense as far as possible and in active voice.

5.    Certain parts of direct speech, which are significant enough, can be used in the headline. It is put in single quotes.

The lead or intro is the next important part after headline, in print news. In most hard news stories, the lead contains the most important information and summarises the story. types of lead

lead

It usually contains the most important of the 5 Ws and 1H. The lead has to be very precise and pin pointed, and the language crisp and easily understandable. Action verbs should be used to give the reader the best picture of what happened. We have various type of lead.

The details of the news story are given in the body of the news. Most of the hard news is written in inverted pyramid style. This style is important for both editing and reading.

https://wecommunication.blogspot.com/2016/07/the-inverted-pyramid-news-story.html

Accordingly, the more important details are in the early part of the news and the less significant details are placed towards the end, in diminishing order of importance.

The body of the news is mostly written in present tense in order to emphasize timeliness.

When a news stories that speak about events that will take place in the future are, auxiliary verb is used.

In stories where the actual time of an event is not known or is not important, the present perfect form of the verb is preferred.

 

 Print news stories use an inverted pyramid structure with the most important items (the facts of the story) reported in the first paragraph. Remaining facts are then presented in descending order of importance.

Broadcast and print news stories differ in length and pace. The average print new piece can vary greatly in length, the reader who dictates the pace of reading. Since print media is geographically specific, news from a particular geography gets priority in such media.

Structure of news story

Inverted Pyramid style

REPORTING FOR RADIO

characteristics of radio

Radio is oldest news medium, after print media and us accessible to wider sections of the society. Even people who cannot read or who are staying remote part of the country can access radio news. It is available in villages as well as in cities. According to UNESCO It is “the mass medium that reaches the widest audience in the world”.

Compared to newspapers and television, radio is inexpensive to produce and distribute. it is also the easiest form of broadcasting to produce. Anyone with an ability to talk can take part in a radio broadcast. It can transmit on a local level, in regional language, addressing issues of importance to local listeners. It can be interactive using telephone or SMS.

format of radio

1.    However, the radio newscast is consumed sequentially. Listeners have to wait.

2.    Similarly, in a radio newscast if a news report is confusing, the listeners cannot rewind and re- read the story as it happens in case of newspapers. They have to comprehend the news at once. They cannot go back. That’s why, clarity in both sentence length and word choice is important in radio news reporting.

3.    Radio of course needs reporting that is for the listener’s ear, rather than the reader’s eye; sentences must be crisp and short.

4.    In radio, a complete story is called ‘wrap’ and its duration varies from 30 second to 90 seconds.

5.     It includes of the reporter’s narration, also called “track,” and often includes sound bites and natural sound, sound that occurs naturally on location.

6.     The script contains less information than a print story, so the picture building is very important.

7.    The radio report with audio is an informative bulletin about current affairs and does not includes opinion. The reporter speaks during the report – providing the voice-over.

8.     The addition of various pieces of recorded material (known as audio clips, cuts, or sound bites) makes the report more lively, authentic, and interesting. These additional pieces can be statements from interviewees, statements made at press conferences, or other recorded material.

9.    Unlike newspaper readers, radio news listeners are hardly, attentive. Usually, people listen to radio while doing something else.

10.  The radio listeners are often driving, working, or engaged in some task other than absorbing the latest news. Hence radio news stories are told in familiar words combined into sentences, which run at comfortable lengths in a conversational style.

11. Radio news is shorter than newspaper news and hence requires comprehension and filtration of facts while writing the news.

 

12. The lead in a radio news introduces the listeners to the broadcast item they are about to hear – whether this is a news report, interview, bulletin, or longer report. It focuses on the essence of the broadcast item to follow, avoiding too many facts and figures.

 

13. However, the content of the lead-in should always have relevance and appeal for the listeners and it should not double up on any of the information in the actual broadcast item.

 

14. The Radio lead consists of three parts. The “ear catcher” should arouse the interest and curiosity of the listener. Then there is an introduction that broadly addresses the topic that the following report will cover; this part of the lead-in will also connect the radio presenter to the report and the rest of the radio program.

 

15. The presenter uses basic storytelling principles and can be freer in how they introduce the item.

 

16. The radio news writing style includes the choice of simple words with short declarative sentences, since the listeners have no opportunity to go back and hear it again.

 

17. Sentences in a radio news story generally contain just one idea and do not contain multiple clauses and internal clauses. Jargons or highly technical words are also avoided.

Television Characteristics

Television Media

Writing for TV and Radio

Principles of writing for broadcast media

ONLINE Writing

https://wecommunication.blogspot.com/2022/05/the-syntax-of-online-writing.html

Read More

TYPES OF FEATURE STORIES

 

Colour Piece: A feature story that essentially tries to enlighten readers on a particular theme or subject.

A color piece, also known as a color feature, is a journalistic feature that focuses on the impressions and descriptions of a subject matter. A story emphasizing the *colour of a situation; that is, one based on description, atmosphere, and emotion rather than straightforward factual reportage. A colour piece may accompany a more factual story as a separate-but-linked item or may be a stand-alone piece the purpose of which is to entertain and/or provide contrast with other unrelated material.

Fly on the Wall: A feature story that is conceived and narrated unobtrusively (not easily noticed )and mostly without the explicit permission of the subjects. 

Reporting can be very difficult at times, but we have to push through-

1.  Observe.  Act like a fly. Take a seat in a room's upper corner and observe. Be the teddy bear's covert camera. Simply watch and take note of every detail.

2.   Lead their lives. We pick up on the specifics and discover details that we could have overlooked in this way. This is the point at which we acquire a true sense of our subject's identity by experiencing their lives. 

3. Reduce our visibility. We outsiders are likely to be too conspicuous, therefore we strive not to draw attention to ourselves..

 4. Remind yourself that you are not one of them. Avoid being overly engrossed in the present. Respect our subject and don't forget our place. Remember that you are the fly and not the topic, so keep your distance. 

5. Examine your topic. Seek out anything you can locate. You need evidence in order to validate your topic. The Internet and paper trails are excellent starting points.

6. Consider every word. Writing something and reading repeatedly. "What about this word?" you ask. Ask yourself, "Is there a better word?" and constantly check synonyms.

7. Get to know the neighborhood. A good place to start is by reading the local newspaper. Attending a local place is an additional wonderful experience. In addition, the coffee shop. 

8.  Keep a friend around.  Sometimes writing can get lonely and depressing if our story isn’t going well.  Keep someone around who can cheer you up and renew your spirits.

Behind the Scenes: A feature story that shifts its focus from the principal event to the background and narrates an interesting tale.

In Disguise: "In Disguise" is a feature story told from the perspective of someone who is part of an event. Disguise and deception were central to much of the best-plotted literature of the 19th century. 

Interview: A feature story that develops itself around questions asked to a respondent, who is usually in a place of prominence. An interview can be defined as an interaction between two people, where questions are asked to elicit information. They are the key, quite simply, to information transmission, be it socially, formally or in business. And that is why journalists use interviews every day to find and report the news that keeps a society informed.

Profile: A feature story that is based on the exploits of a particular eminent person with or without his/ her interview.A "profile feature" is a newspaper article that explores the background and character of a particular person (or group). The focus should be on a news angle or a single aspect of the subject's personal or professional life. The article should begin with the reason the subject is newsworthy at this time, and should be based (not exclusively) on an extensive interview with the subject.

Biographical material is important, but should not be overemphasized: the biography is background to the news. Readers should be allowed to better understand the subject by seeing this person in the context of his or her interests and career, educational and family background.

When reporting a profile feature article, observe your surroundings carefully. Pay attention to your subject's habits and mannerisms. Subtle clues like posture, tone of voice and word choice can all, when presented to readers, contribute to a fuller and more accurate presentation of the interview subject.

When interviewing, encourage your subject to open up and express significant thoughts, feelings or opinions. Do so by asking open-ended questions that are well-planned. Make sure to research the subject of your profile before beginning your interview. This will help you to maintain focus during the conversation and to ask questions that will elicit compelling responses.

The article should open with the subject's connection to the news event and should deal later with birth, family, education, career and hobbies, unless one of those happens to be the focus of the story.

Fact Box/ Chronology: A feature story that provides plain and simple facts mostly in a chronological order.

Backgrounder/ A History of: A feature story that provides detailed information.

Full Texts: A feature story that is nothing but extracts from a book or transcripts of an interview.

Testimony: A feature story that is the first-person account of an individual.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B30KvHixUmY

Analysis: A feature story that scholarly analyzes an event.

Vox Pop/ Expert Roundup: A feature story that accumulates opinions from the general citizenry and thought leaders concerning a subject.. Vox pops are interviews with ordinary people who are asked for a personal statement on a news issue.

Opinion Poll: A feature story that conducts a research of opinions and presents a generalized summary of the accumulated opinions.

Review: A feature story that reviews a work of art and presents a generalized opinion. While news items are extremely important, feature stories play the extremely critical role of building opinions and inciting actions. Features are extensively used for the purpose for advocacy as well. Feature writing is a skill that is acquired over a period of time. Proper training modules are required to turn a naturally gifted writer into a feature writer. 

SOME KEY POINTS OF FEATURE WRITING

 1. Focus should be on the topic and the topic should appeal to the audience. The feel and emotion that the writer creates determine the success of the feature. 

2. Be clear what the feature should do,that is t to inform, persuade, evaluate, evoke emotion, observe, analyze 

3. Accuracy is important. Make sure that the details are correct. 

4. Write for the audience. Know the audience’s taste and write. 

5. Interviews should be detailed and it would be better if the writer can meet the interviewed rather than talk on the phone  

6. Use Anecdotes (Life incidents), quotations and stories to make the feature attractive. 

7. Use the same tense form of the verb throughout the feature unless the situation demands 

 8. Write in Active Voice. Avoid lengthy, complex sentences and paragraphs. Use Active Voice of the sentence. 

 9. Collect details from various sources before writing a feature. Update information and talk to experts on the topic before writing. 

10. Check the grammar & spelling before sending for publication

Read More

A Documentary Film -Define, Meaning ,

 

Define

A documentary film tells a story about real life.  A movie that does its best to represent real life and that doesn’t manipulate it..

Robert Flaherty built his story from his own experience of years living with the Inuit, who happily participated in his project and gave him plenty of ideas for the plot. Flaherty asked them to do things they no longer did, such as hunt for walrus with a spear, and he showed them as ignorant about things they understood.

In early days  people called the films as  ‘‘educationals,’’ ‘‘actualities,’’ ‘‘interest films,’’ or perhaps referred to their subject matter—‘‘travel films,’’ for example the work of the great American filmmaker Robert Flaherty’s Moana (1926), which chronicled daily life on a South Seas island.

 Robert Flaherty defined documentary as the ‘‘artistic representation of actuality’’.

 In the 1990s, documentaries began to be big business worldwide, and by 2004 the worldwide business in television documentary alone added up to $4.5 billion revenues annually. Reality TV and ‘‘docusoaps’’—real-life miniseries set in potentially high-drama situations such as driving schools, restaurants, hospitals, and airports—also flourished. Soon documentaries were being made for cell phones, and collaborative documentaries were being produced online. Marketers who had discreetly hidden the fact that their films were documentaries were now proudly calling such works ‘‘docs.’’

 The truthfulness, accuracy, and trustworthiness of documentaries are important to us all because we value them precisely and uniquely for these qualities. 

Meaning of Documentary Film Making

Documentary is an important reality-shaping communication, because of its claims to truth. Documentaries are always grounded in real life, and make a claim to tell us something worth knowing about it.

 Theatrical wildlife films such as March of the Penguins (2005) are classic examples of consumer entertainment that use all of these techniques to charm and alarm viewers, even though the sensationalism, sex, and violence occur among animals.

   ‘‘A ‘‘regular documentary’’ often means a film that features sonorous ( imposingly deep and full.), ‘‘voice-of-God’’ narration, an analytical argument rather than a story with characters, head shots of experts, number of cuts, script or storytelling structure.

A documentary film is a non-fictional motion picture that seeks to document reality, primarily for the purposes of instruction, education, or maintaining a historical record. It often presents factual information about a particular subject, event, or issue using real-life footage, interviews, archival materials, and narration.

Documentary films through their multi-sensory nature have found to be more impactful of portraying reality as well as a means for social persuasion (Nichols, 2010). In recent years, documentary films are increasingly being used in academia as well for disseminating knowledge. An evolving belief is that documentaries can be valuable in the field of research to illuminate issues of social justice and existing inequities in public education as well as democratize research (Friend & Caruthers, 2016). The ability of film to capture authentic voices and lived experiences is a powerful tool for democracy in education that can be utilized to bring to light existing inequities.

Filmmakers choose the way they want to structure a story which characters to develop for viewers, whose stories to focus on, how to resolve the storytelling.

 Filmmakers have many choices to make about each of the elements. For instance, a single shot may be framed differently and carry a different meaning depending on the frame: a close-up of a father grieving may say something quite different from a wide shot of the same scene showing the entire room; a decision to let the ambient sound of the funeral dominate the soundtrack will mean something different than a swelling soundtrack.

Read More

 The Theory of Performance (ToP) develops and relates six foundational concepts  to form a framework that can be used to explain performance as well as performance improvements. 

To perform is to produce valued results. A performer can be an individual or a group of people engaging in a collaborative effort.

 Developing performance is a journey, and level of performance describes location in the journey. 

Current level of performance depends holistically on 6 components: 

1. context, 
2. level of knowledge, 
3. levels of skills,
4.  level of identity, 
5. personal factors, and 
6. fixed factors.

 Three axioms are proposed for effective performance improvements. These involve a performer’s mindset, immersion in an enriching environment, and engagement in reflective practice. A theory of performance (ToP) is useful in many learning contexts. 

Traditional Contexts 

A theory of performance(ToP) informs learning in classrooms, workshops, and other venues that are traditionally associated with learning. 

Non-traditional Contexts 

A ToP informs learning in contexts that are not traditionally conceptualized as learning environments. Examples of these contexts include academic advising, self development, departments, academic committees, professional research groups, colleges. 

Organizational Learning

 A ToP informs learning by organizations through the idea of examining the “level of performance” of the organization. Performance 

To perform is to take a complex series of actions that integrate skills and knowledge to produce a valuable result. 

In some instances, the performer is an individual. In other performances, the performer is a collection of people who are collaborating such as an academic department, research team, committee, student team, or a university.

 Level of Performance Performance,  is a “journey not a destination.” The location in the journey is labeled as “level of performance.” Each level characterizes the effectiveness or quality of a performance. 

• As a lawyer improves her level of performance, she can conduct legal research faster, more thoroughly, and more in-depth. 

• As an academic department improves its level of performance, the members of the department are able to produce more effective student learning, more effective research, and a more effective culture. 

• As a manager advances his level of performances, he is able to organize people and resources more effectively and to get higher quality results in a shorter time. 

• As a teacher advances his levels of performance, he is able to produce deeper levels of learning, improved levels of skill development, and more connection with the discipline for larger classes while spending less time doing this. 

• As an actor improves his level of performance, he is able to learn parts quicker, play more varied roles, and produce an deeper and more meaningful impact on audiences. Performance advancing through levels is shown in Figure 1 where the labels “

Read More

Organizational Change Theory

Organizational change theory is also known as stage theory, change management or organizational change management (OCM). It is a multidisciplinary field of study that seeks to understand and explain how organizations implement change and undergo a transformational process.

The ultimate goal of organizational change management is to find the best strategies for leading successful transformations within an organization. It's all about navigating the twists and turns of shifting structures, systems, cultures and behaviors to adapt to different pressures and seize exciting new opportunities.

This theory serves as a valuable guide for leaders, managers and business professionals who need to foster resilience and promote sustainable growth in today's dynamic business landscape.

Organizational Theory of Change is a methodical approach to planning, implementing, and evaluating organizational change initiatives. It provides a roadmap for organizations to move from their current state to a desired future state by outlining the logical sequence of steps required to achieve long-term goals.

The Importance of Theory of Change in Organizational Development

The Theory of Change (TOC) is an essential framework for strategic planning in organizations. It helps align activities with long-term visions and missions, leading to improved decision-making at all organizational levels.

By clearly outlining the path to change, TOC enhances communication, providing a common language for stakeholders to discuss and understand the change process. Additionally, it fosters increased accountability by setting clear metrics and milestones and allows for adaptive management by offering a clear view of the change process. This makes organizations more flexible and responsive to changing circumstances.

Key Components of a Theory of Change

A well-developed Theory of Change typically includes several key components. The long-term goal represents the ultimate impact or change the organization aims to achieve. Preconditions or intermediate outcomes are the necessary and sufficient conditions that must be in place for the long-term goal to be realized. Interventions or activities refer to the specific actions or strategies the organization will implement to bring about the desired change.

How does organizational change get started?

Let's take a look at some of the usual suspects:

• Technological advancements
• Market forces
• Changes in regulatory or legal requirements
• Economic factors
• Internal pressures, size changes or acquisitions
• External stakeholder expectations

These drivers of change vary in importance depending on the industry, the specific organization and what's happening in the world. Understanding these drivers helps organizations stay on their toes, ready to recognize when a moment for change has arrived.

 

Types of organizational change

some common types of organizational changes:

1. Strategic change

This type of change focuses on the big picture, involving shifts in the organization's overall direction and long-term goals. It happens when the organization adapts its mission, vision, strategy or core processes to respond to external changes or explore new opportunities.

2. Structural change

This involves implementing changes to how the organization is organized (strategy structure systems). It can include things like changing the hierarchy, reporting relationships, departments or how work is divided among teams. The aim is to improve efficiency, communication and coordination within the organization.

3. Cultural change

Cultural change revolves around transforming the values, beliefs, norms and behaviors that shape the company culture. The goal is to create a new culture that aligns with the desired vision, encouraging collaboration, innovation, adaptability or customer focus.

4. Process change

Process change improved the organization's operational processes and workflows. It aims to make things more efficient, reduce costs, eliminate unnecessary steps or enhance quality by adopting new technologies, streamlining procedures or following best practices.

5. Technological change

This type of change introduces or integrates new technologies within the organization. This could mean implementing new software systems, automation, digital tools or advanced machinery (ex: utilizing AI)to boost productivity, drive innovation or support day-to-day operations.

6. Personnel change

Personnel change emphasizes developing and enhancing the skills, knowledge and capabilities of individuals within the organization. It may involve training programs, talent development initiatives, performance management systems or planning for future leaders to foster personal and organizational growth.

7. Incremental change

Incremental change happens gradually over time, short term wins here, short term wins there. This involves small improvements or refinements to existing processes, products or services. The goal is to continuously enhance efficiency, quality or customer satisfaction through ongoing adjustments.

8. Transformational change

Transformational change is a significant and radical shift that fundamentally transforms the organization. These are large scale changes. It often requires a comprehensive and holistic approach to drive substantial organizational development to create a new status quo.

 

Read More

Social Judgement Theory

Social judgment theory (SJT) is a self-persuasion theory proposed by Carolyn Sherif, Muzafer Sherif, and Carl Hovland, as the perception and evaluation of an idea by comparing it with current attitudes.

Social Judgement theory states that you have a statement or message and you accept it or reject it based on your cognitive map, one's own ego-involvement and if it falls within their latitude of acceptance.

 This theory is that when people receive messages (verbal or nonverbal) they immediately judge where the message should be placed on a scale in their mind through comparing the message with currently held views.

Social Judgement theory is a scientific theory.  Social Judgement theory is value-neutral in that the theoretical propositions are objective and not biased.  This theory explains how individuals judge the messages they receive.  It predicts that individuals accept, or reject specific attitudes and messages.

• Epistemologically( the study of the nature, origin, and limits of human knowledge,) are is one universal interpretation (one truth) in that people judge the messages they receive.  

• Ontologically,(the philosophical study of being.)  this theory is deterministic in that an individuals behavior can be predicted.
• Axiologically(the study of the nature, types, and criteria of values and of value judgments especially in ethics.),   Social Judgement theory has relative simplicity in that it is a fairly simple study.  It can be tested and proved false in that an individual can test the theory through reflecting on statements, which evoke various opinions.  

 

Critique:

Social Judgement theory proposes the idea that persuasion is a two-step process. 

1. The first step involves individuals hearing or reading a message and immediately evaluating where the message falls within their own position. 
2. The second step involves individuals adjusting their particular attitude either toward or away from the message they heard.

Ideas and Implications:

Individuals have three zones in which they accept or reject specific messages or attitudes. 

1. The latitude of acceptance zone is where individuals place attitudes they consider acceptable.  
2. The latitude of rejection zone is where individuals place attitudes they consider unacceptable or objectionable.  
3. The latitude of noncommitment is where people place attitudes they find neither acceptable nor rejectable.

Example:

Example of Social Judgement theory:

Read through these statements and recognize the variety of opinions they represent;

1. Student athletes should be given extra time to complete assignments.

2. Student athletes are for the most part lazy when it comes to college work.

3. Student athletes should receive more time to complete assignments because their schedule is more hectic than the average student.

 

Read More

Social Action Theory

 Sociologist Max Weber developed social action theory.

Definition of Social Action Theory

 Social action theory in sociology is a critical theory that holds that society is a construction of the interactions and meanings of its members.  It explains human behaviour at a microscopic, small-scale level through which we can understand societal structures. 

This is because social action theory argues that society is made up of human behaviour and that people create and embed meaning into institutions. On the other hand, structural theories are based on the idea that society is made up of institutions and that these institutions shape and give meaning to human behaviour.

 Social action theory states that people create society, institutions, and structures. People determine society, not the other way around. Society is created 'from the bottom up'.

 Weber attributes this to the fact that norms and values are not fixed but flexible. He argues that individuals give them meaning, and have a much more active influence in shaping society than structuralist theorists assume.

 Weber only considered an action to be 'social' if it took into account the behaviour of other people, because that also contributes to the creation of meaning. 

He also believed that we should practise understanding, i.e., empathy, to understand the meaning behind people's actions. He specified two kinds of understanding

Social Action And Understanding

According to Weber, social action should be the primary focus of sociology. Social action is the term for an action behind which an individual attaches meaning.

Positive aspects of social action theory

• Social action theory acknowledges individual agency and motivations for change and impact on society. It allows for large-scale structural change.
• The theory does not see the individual as a passive entity in a societal structure. Instead, the individual is viewed as an active member and shaper of society.

It can help trace significant structural changes throughout history by considering the meanings behind social actions.

Read More

Braddock’s Derivation of Lasswell’s Model

 Harold Lasswell’s Model (1948)

 Harold Dwight Lasswell (1902–1978) was a leading American political scientist and communications theorist. He was the Chief of the Experimental Division for the Study of War Time Communications at the Library of Congress during the Second World War. He analysed Nazi propaganda films to identify mechanisms of persuasion used to secure the acquiescence and support of the German populace for Hitler. He gave verbal models of communication and politics in the same year when Shannon wrote his paper on mathematical theory. 

His model of communication is in the shape of a question containing many more questions. 

Who says

 What to Whom 

in What Channel 

with What effect? 

This linear model enumerates main variables involved in the process of communication. 

The ‘Who’ refers to the identification of the source and

 ‘What’ refers to the analysis of the content of the message. 

The choice of channel is denoted by the question ‘What channel’ and the characteristics of the audience by the question ‘Whom’. 

The main thing about this model is that it makes the end result of communication as the most important aspect of the whole process, when Lasswell asks ‘What effect?’ 

In a way, this model of communication appears to be influenced to a large extent by the behaviourism which was the newly developing trend in America those days. 

Behaviourism is a school of psychology that supports that behaviours can be influenced by conditioning. Laswell’s model takes the psychological conditioning of individuals and society into account. 

His model of communication can also be described as the psycho-sociological model of communication because it deals with the psychological and sociological aspects of communication. It considers what effects communication has on the recipient(s) of the message, and so it enters the domain of psychology as well as sociology.

 Braddock’s Derivation of Lasswell’s Model In 1958,

 Richard Braddock suggested that Lasswell’s model be expanded to consider two additional elements that Braddock argued that Lasswell’s model ignored ‘for what purpose’ and ‘under what circumstances’. 

Braddock’s model is Models of Communication 

Read More