Multimedia Learning Theory

Multimedia is the use of multiple presentation tools or techniques to deliver information. Audio and visual presentation technologies provide an effective set of tools for instructors and instructional designers to communicate with learners. 

Multimedia Learning Theory (MMLT) was originally developed by Richard Mayer in 1997.  It falls under the grand theory of Cognitivism.  

Mayer’s multimedia learning theory provides an informative set of principles that can be used to create effective instructional message design.According to Mayer (1997), multimedia learning theory consists of three aspects that help students learn more effectively. Multimedia learning theory describes how the designers of instructional messages, systems, and learning environments can optimize learning.  

 

The first one is that there are two channels, namely audio and visual, for information processing; this is also known as the multimedia principle. This principle states that students may learn better from images and words than just from words.

The second aspect is that each channel has a limited capacity to process information. In other words, human beings can only process information in limited amounts, and they try to understand the information by creating mental representations from the information sources.

The last aspect is that learning is an active process of filtering, selecting, organizing, and integrating information based on existing knowledge.

Mayer (2002) also stated that the process of transferring knowledge from two channels (audio and visual) could be successful when information is integrated with existing knowledge. 

Multimedia learning theory describes a series of processes that are taking place as a student is creating a new schema (Mayer, Heiser, & Lonn, 2001).  

The first step in the learning process is the initial viewing and listening to instructional content and the immediate storage of that information in short term memory.  

In this step, text is essentially visual words that when presented with diagrams then both the diagrams and the text are processed by the visual processing channel.  When words are presented via audio, the narration is instead processed by the audio processing channel, while visuals are processed by the visual channel.  The intrinsic content is separated from the extraneous content in the first phase of working memory.  

Next, the remaining germane resources in working memory create relationships between the visual and verbal information and recalls associated previous knowledge from long-term memory.  Recalled schema is then compared to new information where the learner creates understanding.  Finally, new schema can be created, or existing schema modified, and stored in long-term memory

In this step, text is essentially visual words that when presented with diagrams then both the diagrams and the text are processed by the visual processing channel.  When words are presented via audio, the narration is instead processed by the audio processing channel, while visuals are processed by the visual channel. 

 Multimedia learning theory describes two cognitive processing channels available to our learners, one for processing auditory information and one for processing visual information, and the result is the modification or development of new schemata in long-term memory, or learning 

Multimedia design principles are guidelines that help educators and instructional designers create effective and engaging learning materials using various media formats. 

These principles focus on optimizing the presentation of information to enhance comprehension, retention, and overall learning experience.

 By considering the cognitive processes involved in learning and the way humans process information, multimedia design principles help create learning materials that are more engaging and accessible to learners with diverse needs and preferences

Mayer’s multimedia learning theory provides an informative set of principles that can be used to create effective instructional message design. 

By the early 2000s, Mayer’s cognitive theory of multimedia learning had solidified into three main principles (Mayer & Moreno, 2003).  The first principle is the assumption that learners have independent channels for verbal and visual information and using both channels simultaneously is more efficient than using either channel alone.  The second principle is that the two processing channels in working memory have limited capacity for both short-term storage and active processing.  The third principle is that for learning to occur, working memory must actively process, pull previous information, and create and store new or modified schema into long-term memory .

Foundational Principles: 

1. The Dual Channels principle, states that our learners have two independent cognitive systems for processing visual and auditory information,

 2. The Limited Capacity principle, states that our learners have limited working memory resources, and 

3. The Active Processing principle, which states that to learn students need to focus on relevant information, organize that information for themselves, and relate that information to previous schemata. 

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Negotiation

  

Negotiation is a method by which people settle differences. It is a process by which compromise or agreement is reached while avoiding argument and dispute.

Without negotiation, such conflicts may lead to argument. The point of negotiation is to try to reach agreements without causing future barriers to communications.

Stages of Negotiation

In order to achieve a desirable outcome, it may be useful to follow a structured approach to negotiation. For example, in a work situation a meeting may need to be arranged in which all parties involved can come together.

The process of negotiation includes the following stages:

1.Preparation

2.Discussion

3.Clarification of goals

4.Negotiate towards a Win-Win outcome

5.Agreement

6.Implementation of a course of action

1. Preparation

Before any negotiation takes place, a decision needs to be taken as to when and where a meeting will take place to discuss the problem and who will attend. Setting a limited time-scale can also be helpful to prevent the disagreement continuing.

2. Discussion

During this stage, individuals or members of each side put forward the case as they see it, i.e. their understanding of the situation. 

Sometimes it is helpful to take notes during the discussion stage to record all points put forward in case there is need for further clarification. 

 3. Clarifying Goals

From the discussion, the goals, interests and viewpoints of both sides of the disagreement need to be clarified.  It is helpful to list these factors in order of priority. 

4. Negotiate Towards a Win-Win Outcome

This stage focuses on what is termed a 'win-win' outcome where both sides feel they have gained something positive through the process of negotiation and both sides feel their point of view has been taken into consideration.

5. Agreement

Agreement can be achieved once understanding of both sides’ viewpoints and interests have been considered.

6. Implementing a Course of Action

From the agreement, a course of action has to be implemented to carry through the decision.

7. Failure to Agree

If the process of negotiation breaks down and agreement cannot be reached, then re-scheduling a further meeting is called for. 

8. Informal Negotiation

There are times when there is a need to negotiate more informally.  At such times, when a difference of opinion arises, it might not be possible or appropriate to go through the stages set out above in a formal manner.

elements of negotiation

In any negotiation, the following three elements are important and likely to affect the ultimate outcome of the negotiation:

1.Attitudes

2.Knowledge

3.Interpersonal Skills

Attitudes

All negotiation is strongly influenced by underlying attitudes to the process itself, for example attitudes to the issues and personalities involved in the particular case or attitudes linked to personal needs for recognition

Knowledge

The more knowledge you possess of the issues in question, the greater your participation in the process of negotiation. In other words, good preparation is essential. Furthermore, the way issues are negotiated must be understood as negotiating will require different methods in different situations.

Interpersonal Skills

Good interpersonal skills are essential for effective negotiations, both in formal situations and in less formal or one-to-one negotiations.

These skills include:

• Effective verbal communication. 

• Listening. Active Listening 

• Reducing misunderstandings is a key part of effective negotiation. 

• Rapport Building. Build stronger working relationships based on mutual respect. 

• Problem Solving. 

• Decision Making. 

• Assertiveness. Assertiveness is an essential skill for successful negotiation. 

• Dealing with Difficult Situations. 

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• https://www.skillsyouneed.com/ips/negotiation.html

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INTERPERSONAL CONFLICTS AT WORKPLACE , CONFLICT RESOLUTION STRATEGIES

 MEANING AND TYPES:

conflict

The term conflict means different things to different persons.  It may be regarded as disagreement or hostility between individuals or groups in the organisation. It generally connotes the clash between the ideas, goals & actions of the individuals. 

 Conflict occurs at various levels. It may occur within an individual, between individuals, within a group and between groups.

 Conflict between two or more persons is called interpersonal conflict. Interpersonal conflicts are found between individuals. Individual differences create interpersonal conflicts. Whenever two or more persons interact with each other there are chances that interpersonal conflict may arise because each person is different in terms of personality, perception, values & attitudes. 

Conflict has serious implications on effectiveness, behaviour and performance of the individuals or groups. Therefore, it is very important  to understand what exactly are the reasons for conflict and how it can be handled or resolved.    

 

 

Type of Interpersonal Conflicts:

Following are some types of interpersonal conflicts which are usually found at the workplaces:

 1.  Vertical Conflict  .

This is mostly in the form of superior -subordinate relationships. Superior attempts to control the   behaviour of the subordinates and subordinates resist such control resulting in vertical conflicts.

2.  Horizontal Conflict

This is among the persons at the same hierarchical level in the same function or in different functions.

 3.  Substantive Conflict

 It happens when one person fundamentally disagrees with another person or group in the course of   doing business/job. This is a disagreement of opinion and thought.

4.   Emotional Conflict

This is commonly called as “Clash of personalities”. This type of conflict can sometimes be more draining, and distracts from the more important work that needs to be done. Usually this happens between co-workers who may not like one another.

Reasons for inter-personal conflict

The most commonly cited reasons for interpersonal conflict are personality differences, perceptions, clashes of values and interests, competitive environment, power and status differences, scarce resources, stereotype behaviour, and exploitative nature of human beings. These are briefly discussed below.

Personality :Each individual is different in terms of his personality which again depends on many factors like upbringing, cultural and family traditions, socialisation process, education and values.

2. Information Deficiency: If wrong information or incomplete information is communicated it may create conflict among the related individuals. But it may be corrected easily by communicating the right message. Sometimes physical separation and language can create distortions in messages and in turn lead to conflict.

3. Role Ambiguity : Sometimes an individual performs more than one role in an organisation when expectations of the different roles clash with each other, the individual tends to be in a role conflict. Role conflict also arises due to the known specifications of role assigned to an individual in the organisation structure.

4. Environmental Stress : In case of scares or shrinking resources, downsizing or competitive pressures, individuals consider each other as their competitors or rivals. This clash of interest leads to conflicts.

 

Aspects of Conflicts

Conflict is inevitable in organisations. It affects the organisation in both ways positively and negatively. Viewed from these angles conflicts are characterised as functional and dysfunctional conflicts.

Functional Conflicts

Conflict is not always harmful. Conflicts that support the goal of the group and improve its performance are known as functional conflicts. A moderate degree of conflicts is a necessary condition for creativity or improvement. These are also called constructive conflicts. Following are some of the positive or functional aspects of conflicts

● Conflict leads to new ideas, creativity and innovation

● It creates healthy competition among the individuals

● In case of intergroup conflicts, it brings group cohesiveness

● It provides more challenging work environment

● It promotes change

● It leads to high quality decisions

Dysfunctional Conflicts

The destructive forms of conflicts that hinder group performance are called dysfunctional conflicts. Following consequences may arise due to dysfunctional conflicts.

● High tensions among employees

● Discontentment in employees

● Mistrust

● Goal Displacement

● Resignation of Personnel

● Lockouts & Strikes

● Resistance to Change

● Disobedience

All these factors play a negative role in the growth and environment of the organisation

 

INTERPERSONAL CONFLICT RESOLUTION STRATEGIES

Recognizing the sources of conflict in any organization is the main step in the development of conflict resolution mechanisms . Conflict happens in every organisation and each organisation handles it differently depending upon various factors. There are mainly five ways or styles to manage conflicts   

1) Avoiding

In certain situations it may be appropriate to avoid a conflict. It is a deliberate decision to side step a conflicting issue, postpone addressing it till later or withdraw from a conflicting situation. However researches show that overuse of this style results in negative evaluation from others in the workplace.

2) Accommodating

In this style one party is willing to self sacrifice in the interest of the other party. Over reliance on accommodating has its dangers. If managers constantly defer to others, others may lose respect for him. In addition such managers may become frustrated as their own needs are never met.

3) Forcing

This style is characterised by high assertion and low cooperation. In this style one tries to meet one’s goals at another party’s

4) Compromising

 It is intermediate on both the assertive and cooperative side. Each party tries to give up something to reach a solution to the conflict. A typical “give and take” policy dominates the behaviour of the conflicting parties. It becomes an effective style when efforts towards collaboration have failed.

 5) Collaborating

 It involves the attempts to satisfy the needs of both the parties. This is based on “win-win” style. In this style a creative solution usually emerges because of the joint efforts of both the parties who are keen on both gaining from the situation without hurting the other.

SOME GUIDELINES 

1.    *Analyse the situation /● Choose a management style that fits the situation ● Identify the source of conflict ● Think strategically about conflict rather than react blindly to it. ● Take control of conflicts rather than be controlled by them ● Negotiate, solution to conflicts, rather than fight ● Focus on the task and not on the personalities. ● ● Address conflict without accusation, sarcasm or hostility. in a timely way● Listen to both sides of arguments empathically. ● Predict a problem situation long before it reaches the crisis stage. 

2.    ● Change organisational culture to make healthy communication the norm. 

3.    ● Modal the attitude and behaviour, you want your employees to immolate. 

Conflicts can occur at any organisation where people of varied personalities and backgrounds work together. With the emergence of diverse workplaces, increased use of technology , change in methods and organizational structures and cultures, the possibility of interpersonal conflicts is increasing manifold .However as per many experts not all types of conflicts are harmful. Moderate level of functional conflicts are good for the organizational effectiveness as they bring in creativity and improvement in procedures and operations.

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https://open.lib.umn.edu/communication/chapter/6-2-conflict-and-interpersonal-communication/

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A camera lens

 A camera without a lens is useless to a photographer. The lens is what focuses light from what you see through the viewfinder . 

• Focal length is the measurement of distance (in millimeters) between the point of convergence of your lens and the sensor recording the image. The focal length range of a lens is expressed by a number, and that number tells you how much of the scene your camera will be able to capture. Smaller numbers have a wider angle of view and show more of the scene; larger numbers have a narrower angle of view and show less.

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• Maximum Aperture.  A lens with a wide maximum aperture is great for low light situations.

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• Depth of Field. The depth of field varies with the type of lens, due to maximum aperture.

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Basic Types of Camera Lenses

There are two basic categories of camera lenses:

1. 1. Prime lenses. A prime lens is a classic style that has been around as long as cameras have. Prime lenses have a fixed focal range, which means that you can't zoom in or out. 
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3. The main advantage of prime lenses is that they specialise in just one focal length.  Prime lenses produce much higher quality images than a zoom lens in general, but we will need to know in which situation we can use them. For example, the 50mm prime lens, otherwise known as the Nifty Fifty, is perfect for portraits, as the focal length is seen to be as close to the human eye as possible. A 35 mm prime lens, on the other hand, is usually best employed by landscape photographers.
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5. 2. Zoom lenses. Zoom lenses are one of the most common types of lens . Zooms use a series of lenses to allow different focal lengths from a single lens, making them more flexible but not as fast. They contain more glass, which aids in their flexibility, but they also tend to be bigger and heavier than prime lenses.

6. Zoom lenses are incredibly versatile,Zoom lenses have variable focal lengths, We can zoom from 70mm  to 200mm.

   While travelling we  can find zoom lenses with much more range, such as an 18 - 270 mm, allowing us to photograph both close up and in the distance. Zoom lenses have variable focal lengths.  These big lenses are found within a range of 100mm up to 600mm, sometimes even more lens that will being used by wedding photographers. 

7. For budding photographers or anyone needing to photograph in a diverse range of scenarios or conditions, there’s nothing that can really beat a good zoom range for quality and adaptability

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1. Macro Lenses
This type of camera lens is used to create very close-up, macro photographs. They have a unique design that allows them to produce sharp images at extremely close range. These lenses are great for nature photography, enabling you to capture an enormous amount of detail in one image.

2. Telephoto Lenses
Telephoto lenses are a type of zoom lens with multiple focal points. A telephoto lenses are found within a range of 100mm up to 600mm, sometimes even more.

Telephoto Lens

If a standard zoom lens isn’t quite strong enough for your needs, then the next step up is a telephoto lens. These big lenses are found within a range of 100mm up to 600mm, sometimes even more.

Telephoto lenses are bulky and may require a tripod to support them, making them nowhere near as practical as a standard zoom lens. If you are a professional wildlife photographer, sports photographer, or if you photograph the night sky and the stars, then a telephoto lens can be invaluable. 

3. Wide Angle Lenses

Wide angle lenses are ideal for fitting a large area into your frame. This is especially useful for landscape photography or street photography. With wide angle lenses, almost everything is in focus, unless our subject is very close to the lens. Wide angles have a wider focal field, allowing you to essentially capture more of the scene in front of us  than say a zoom lens. Wide-angle lenses generally have a focal length between 16 and 35mm.

4. Fisheye lens. A fisheye lens is an ultra-wide-angle lens that can take in a full 180 degree radius around it. A fisheye lens is basically an ultra-wide-angle lens, offering an enormous field of view. 

A fisheye lens is basically an ultra-wide-angle lens, offering an enormous field of view. These are more specialist lenses and aren’t generally needed by most photographers. They are useful if you are photographing indoors or using your camera for design work. An ultra-wide-angle lens can have a focal length as low as 8mm.

They are useful if you are photographing indoors or using your camera for design work. An ultra-wide-angle lens can have a focal length as low as 8mm.

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