Rogers' Diffusion of Innovation communication

The diffusion model is rooted in the modernization paradigm, characterized by the intent to use communication media and methods to persuade people to change specific behaviors. Diffusion approaches believe progress is achieved by inducing change in individuals' attitudes and behaviors. This approaches linked to the participatory model, instead, acknowledge that there can be different constructions of the same reality. No one single party has the ulti­mate truth; rather, there are a number of realities that often need to be reconciled through communication. This theoretical framework grows out of the construc­tivist perspective and carries a number of implications.

 The diffusion mode is more media- and message-oriented, while the participa­tion mode is more about dialog, investigation, and analysis. By necessity, the devel­opment communication specialist needs to be conversant with research methods of both modalities. In the initial phases of development projects and programs—inception, preparation, and design—familiarity with empirical investigation tech­niques and approaches often becomes more important than familiarity with communication media and messages.

Diffusion

Rogers (Rogers, 2005, p. 5) defines diffusion as "the process in which an innovation is communicated though certain channels over time among the members of a social system." There are four key elements that make up this definition. These interacting factors include ‘innovation’, ‘communication’, ‘time’ and ‘social system’.

 Diffusion of Innovation includes both spontaneous spread of new ideas and a planned method of propagating a new idea (Rogers, 2005, p. 6).

Four Elements of Diffusion of Innovation

Innovation

 Rogers (2005, p. 12) defines Innovation as "an idea, practice or object that has perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption." First time knowledge about a well-established practice can be perceived as ‘new,’ and an innovation, for that particular group of individuals. As Rogers said, "newness can be expressed in terms of knowledge, persuasion or a decision to adopt." It is incorrect to assume that all innovations are beneficial and that all innovations are equally adopted. The main characteristics of an innovation that significantly affect its adoption (or rejection) are (1) relative advantage (2) compatibility (3) complexity (4) trialability (5) observability. These factors will be discussed later in the chapter.

Communication Channels

Communication plays a significant role in the spread of ideas and exchange of information.  As defined by Rogers (2005, p. 18), communication is the "process by which participants create and share information with one another to reach a mutual understanding." By means of a communication channel, messages are transmitted from one individual to another. The two most powerful communication channels are the mass media and interpersonal communication. The former helps in creating awareness and spreading knowledge about an innovation, whereas, the latter is effective in creating an opinion and possible adoption or rejection of the innovation. Most effective communication takes place between individuals who have similar backgrounds such as education, socio-economic status, so forth. Such a communication is called homophilic. But, often, in diffusion of innovation, heterophilic communication occurs between an individual who has better knowledge and understanding of the innovation to an individual with lesser awareness.

Time

Time is an important factor in studying diffusion research. Time is involved in various phases of the diffusion process, namely (1) the innovation decision process; (2 )the individual innovativeness, i.e., the time taken for an individual to accept/reject an innovation as compared to others; and (3) the rate of adoption of the innovation. These intermediate time bound steps are explained later in the chapter.

Social System

A social system has a definite structure, defined as the patterned arrangements of the units in a system (Rogers, 2005, p. 25) and a set of norms.  Hence, it is clear diffusion and adoption of innovation are greatly affected by the social system and the characteristics of the individual units of that system.

Innovation and Rate of Adoption

 When any new idea is brought to our attention, the foremost tendency as humans is to put it under the microscope and dissect it. This helps us carefully understand the related features, advantages and disadvantages. It helps us make a mental picture and comprehend the innovation better. This is where the importance of understanding the attributes of an innovation comes to picture, which then affects its rate of adoption.

 Rogers (2005) defined the rate of adoption as “the relative speed with which an innovation is adopted by members of a social system”.  For instance, personal and optional innovations usually are adopted faster than the innovations involving an organizational or collective innovation-decision. Moreover, the cumulative function of the rate of adoption of an innovation is an S-Shaped curve. The S-shaped curve rises very slowly in the beginning, which implies only a few adopters. It gradually increases and then shoots up to a maximum when more than half of the adopters have adopted. It continues to rise gradually, but slowly, signifying the group of people left to adopt the innovation.

These attributes of innovation are relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, trialability,and observability (Rogers, 2005, p. 16).

Relative Advantage

Rogers (2005, p. 219) defines relative advantage as "the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being better than the idea it supersedes."  For early adopters, innovators, and early majority social status is a highly motivating factor. The greater the relative advantages of an innovation, the greater its rate of adoption. For example, to integrate technology into education, teachers should first see its usefulness and that it betters their instruction for them to use technology (Finley, 2003). Once the adopter sees the relative advantages of an innovation, the adopter generally perceives how compatible the innovation is to their current situation. This brings us to the next attribute.

Compatibility

Compatibility is defined as "the degree to which an innovation is perceived to be consistent with the existing value system, past experiences, and needs of potential adopters."  The more compatible an innovation is, the greater the rate of adoption. 

Complexity

Some innovations are easy to understand and use while others are more difficult to comprehend. In general, the more complex an innovation, the lower the chance of it being adopted. Complexity is defined as the "degree to which an innovation is perceived as relatively difficult to understand and use." 

Trialability

Trialability is the "degree to which an innovation can be experimented on with a limited basis." When an innovation can be tried, it increases its chances of adoption. An innovation is changed according to the user feedback during the trial phase. Similarly, most of the pharmaceutical drugs have to cross a mandatory trial phase before their actual market launch. In general, adopters wish to benefit from the functional effects of an innovation, but avoid any dysfunctional effects. However, Trialability may reduce the rate of adoption.

Observability

The last characteristic of an innovation is observability, defined as "the degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others." This is positively related to the rate of adoption. When we see our peers using a new technological gizmo, we are more likely to buy and try it out on our own. This shows that ideas easily observed and communicated are more likely to be adopted.

Innovation-Decision Process

This is a process that happens over time where all pros and cons of an innovation are examined and a decision is gradually reached upon either accepting or rejecting the innovation. It consists of 5 stages: knowledge, persuasion, decision, implementation, and confirmation.

Knowledge Stage

This is the stage when the users or possible adopters first hear about the existence of the innovation, and then gain knowledge and understanding about its various functions. There are three types of knowledge associated with these questions: 

(a) Awareness-Knowledge: When a possible adopter seeks information regarding what the innovation is all about, has inquisitiveness that falls under the first category of knowledge. This may also motivate other adopters to seek similar information about the innovation and also lead them to ask further questions.

 (b) How-to-Knowledge: This type of knowledge enlightens the users about how to correctly use an innovation.  If the user has proper and correct how-to knowledge before the trial and adoption of the innovation, it increases the likelihood of its adoption. 

(c) Principle-Knowledge: Lack of principle knowledge may lead to misuse of an innovation and subsequent discontinuance of the same. By all this know-how knowledge, individuals are in a better position to judge the effectiveness of any innovation. But being equipped with all this knowledge does not guarantee the adoption of the innovation as it also depends on the attitude of the individual towards it.

Persuasion Stage

In the persuasion stage, an individual forms a favorable or an unfavorable attitude towards an innovation, but this attitude does not necessarily lead to adoption or rejection of the innovation.  Rogers states that the former is more cognitive or knowing, whereas the latter is more affective or feeling. It is the integral step where the user starts forming a perception about the innovation and hence, more intricately and psychologically involved.  The user continues to seek information about the innovation.

Decision Stage

In the decision stage, the individual puts his knowledge and opinion into practice and decides whether to adopt or reject an innovation. Adoption is the decision "to make full use of the innovation as the best course of action available" and rejection implies not to adopt an innovation. 

Implementation Stage

Implementation occurs when the innovation is put into practice. A person gathers all necessary information regarding the innovation and comes to a decision of adopting (or rejecting) it. Finally, in this stage it is put into practice.  The role of change agents is significant here as technical advisors as they answer various questions regarding the innovation. Implementation is a more challenging process when an organization is involved as the users are different sets of people, and often, different than the deciders. 

Confirmation Stage

The Confirmation stage involves the reinforcement of the adoption decision and integration of the new innovation within the framework of existing practices. It is also possible that the individual also decides to reverse his decision of adoption, if he comes across any conflicting views about the innovation.  For instance, mail via post has almost been replaced by e-mail correspondence; and (2) Disenchantment discontinuance is one where an innovation is rejected due to lack of performance.

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The Scope and Uses of Development Communication

Development communication into two basic modes: the "monologic" mode, based on the classical one-way communication model associated with diffusion, and the "dialogic" mode, based on the interactive two-way model, associated with participa­tory approaches. Being familiar with these two modes helps one to better under­stand which to apply under what circumstances. 

Monologic Mode: One-Way Communication for Behavior Change

The monologic mode is linked to the development communication perspective known as "diffusion."  It is based on the one-way flow of information for the purpose of disseminating information and messages to induce change. Its main intentions can be divided into two different types of applications: 

(1) communication to inform and 
(2) communication to persuade.

"Communication to inform" typically involves a linear transmission of infor­mation, usually from a sender to many receivers. It is used when raising awareness or providing knowledge on certain issues is considered enough to achieve the intended goal.  These approaches are frequently used in health initiatives. 

 Its underlying assumption is that indi­vidual attitudes and behaviors can be changed voluntarily through communication and persuasion" techniques and the related use of effective messages. 

The primary objective is for the sender to be able to persuade the receivers about the intended change.  

Dialogic Mode: Two-Way Communication for Engagement and Discovery

On the other hand, the dialogic mode is associated with the emerging participatory paradigm. It is based on the horizontal, two-way model of communication, creating a constructive environment where stakeholders can participate in the definition of problems and solutions. The main purposes of this model can be divided into two broad types of applications: 
(1) communication to assess; and 
(2) communication to empower.

"Communication to assess" is used as a research and analytical tool that,  can be used effectively to investi­gate any issue, well beyond those strictly related to the communication dimension. The power of dialogic communication is applied to engage stakeholders in explor­ing, uncovering, and assessing key issues, opportunities, and risks of both a techni­cal and political nature.

Dialogic communication is empower and effective as a problem-solving tool, also builds confidence, prevent conflicts, and addresses the issue of poverty by engaging the poorest and most marginal sectors in the process concerning issues of relevance to them. 

The overall goal of the dialogic mode is to ensure mutual understanding and to make the best use of all possible knowledge in assessing the situation, building con­sensus, and looking for appropriate solutions. By facilitating dialog with key stake­holders, this type of communication enhances the analysis and minimizes risks.

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communication Components(Strategy)

Strategic communication is uniquely situated to foster these development goals and help overcome some of the above challenges because it facilitates both individual level and societal level changes. It consists of three key approaches advocacy, social mobilisation, and  programme communication also referred to as behaviour change communication.

Strategic Communication:  is an evidence-based, results-oriented process, undertaken in consultation with the participant group(s). It  linked to other programme elements, considering the  local context,  and using of  multiplicity of communication approaches, to stimulate positive and measurable behaviour and social change.

Advocacy

Advocacy: Influencing Heart and Minds of Decision Makers Successful advocacy strategies aim to influence decision makers at various levels; at international, regional, national or district levels. Therefore, the advocacy component of the strategy should inform and motivate appropriate leaders to create a supportive environment for the programme by taking actions such as: changing policies, allocating resources, speaking out on critical issues, and initiating public discussion.

Possible results of an advocacy intervention can be targeted leaders taking actions such as:

■ Legal reform, or enactment of new law(s), or rules of business;

 ■ Policy decisions, formulation of and/or reform;

■ Administrative directives, rules; and

■ Resource mobilization, financial allocation. In addition, the advocacy component can build the capacity of leaders to become advocates themselves and speak out on issues pertinent to the programme to:

■ Strengthen political will and remove blockages;

■ Change funding priorities;

■ Support policy change; and

 ■ Address social barriers.

Social Mobilization

  Social mobilization is a process of harnessing selected partners to raise demand for or sustain progress toward a development objective.   Social mobilization enlists the participation of institutions, community networks and social and religious groups to use their membership and other resources to strengthen participation in activities at the grass-roots level.  

Examples of groups that may get involved in social mobilization include school teachers and students, religious groups, farmers' cooperatives, micro-credit groups, civil society organizations, professional associations, women's groups and youth associations. Well-planned social mobilisation efforts also seek to empower communities to take control of their own situations, including accepting or rejecting interventions.  Social mobilisation, integrated with other communication approaches, has been a key feature in numerous communication efforts worldwide.

Whether formal or non-formal, organizations selected for social mobilization should be chosen according to the following criteria:

■ Generally the group has a wide geographic spread over the country with a structure emanating from the national level down to lower levels of administration-to districts and below. Its participation in a cause can be triggered and activated at the national level.

■ The group is already known and accepted by the community targeted in the communication strategy.

Core elements of successful social mobilisation efforts and illustrates two experiences from the South Asia region – Nepal and Bangladesh - in order to further the understanding of effective planning of social mobilisation as an integral part of strategic communication processes.  Some prominent examples include: (a) Soul City’s campaign against domestic violence in South Africa, (b) the UNICEF polio eradication campaign in Uttar Pradesh.

Communication material to support the work of social mobilizers includes something to identify their role in the campaign (caps, T-shirts, bags) as well as some simple informational materials such as brochures or flash cards to help with message delivery.

Behaviour Change Communication 

Behaviour change communication involves face-to-face dialogue with individuals or groups to inform, motivate, problem-solve or plan, with the objective to promote behaviour change. Modern technology has recently enhanced the scope and reach of behaviour development communication such as radio and television 'talk shows' with phone-ins allowing for dialogue on a wider scale. The backbone of developing the behaviour change communication component of the strategy comes from a combination of data, participant and behavioural analyses and community input.

■ Which communication objectives need individualized information and problem-solving to be achieved (e.g. persuading caregivers of the importance of fully vaccinating their children)

■ Who are the most appropriate participants to conduct inter-personal communication (e.g. service providers, peer educators, NGO and government frontline workers, health workers, community leaders)

■ How will chosen communicators use inter-personal communication-(e.g. through programme activities, community meetings, house to house visits, during health clinic visits)

■ What is the capacity to undertake inter-personal communication (e.g. preparation could include sharing technical knowledge, communication skills training and encouraging the development of an appropriateoward the participant group being contacted)

■ How can the inter-personal communication activities of front line workers or volunteers be sustained? (e.g. what resources and activities are necessary for their continued motivation and support)

 ■ Have appropriate messages and materials been developed (e.g. messages which have been developed using community participation, problem solving, and dialogue) 

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Philosophy and goal of Development Communication

Development Communication is communication with a social conscience. It takes humans into account. Development communication is primarily associated with rural problems, but is also concerned with urban problems. It has two primary roles: a transforming role, as it seeks social change in the direction of higher  uality of values of society.  Development communication seeks to create an atmosphere for change, as well as providing innovations through which society may change.

Definition

Development communication has been defined in several ways by economic

development experts, sociologists and communication experts.

The terminology development communication originated in Asia.  Definitions differ from region to region depending on the definers view of development. 

Nora Quebral (1975) defined development communication as the art

and science of human communication applied to the speedy transformation of a country from poverty to a dynamic state of economic growth and makes possible greater economic and social equality and the larger fulfilment of human potential.

Development Communication is communication with a social conscience.   It takes

humans into account.  Development communication is primarily associated with rural problems, but is also concerned with urban problems. It has two primary roles: a transforming role, as it seeks social change in the direction of higher quality of values of society. In playing its roles, development communication seeks to create an atmosphere for change, as well as providing innovations through which society may change.

Philosophy and goal of Development Communication

Three main ideas which define the philosophy of development communication and make it different from general communication are:

1.  Development communication is purposive  communication, it is value-laden; and it is pragmatic.  In the development context, a tacit positive value is attached to what one communicates about, which shall motivate the people for social change.

2. Development  communication is goal-oriented. The ultimate goal of development communication is a higher quality of life for the people of a society by social and political change.

3. The goal of development communication is not purely in economic terms, but also in terms of social, political, cultural, and moral values that make a person‟s life whole, and that enable a person to attain his or her full potential. The goal of development communication in a specific society will be influenced by the ends and values of that society.

Development communication has to deal with two types of audience:

i) the communicators comprising development bureaucracy, media practitioners and professionals, and
ii) the people i.e. the audience who can be informed or uninformed; educated or semi-literate or literate.

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Dominant Paradigm of Development

 The western model for development predominated in 1950s and 1960s.  The modernization paradigm arose soon after World War II, in 1949. It envisioned development as a challenge to bring the "underdeveloped countries" out of their conditions of poverty by mod­ernizing them and by  by free-market approaches. 

The origin, principles, and applications of this paradigm should be considered within the historical context of the postwar years, also known as the Cold War period. On that tine when world influence was polarized by two superpowers: the United States and the Soviet Union. Their influence reached every sphere of the international sce­nario, including development.  In this context, the modernization paradigm pro­moted by political scientists and scholars of Western countries became so strong and so pervasive in every dimension of social life that it became also known as the "dominant paradigm."

Rogers (1960) called this the “dominant paradigm” of development as it exercised a dominant influence in the field of development. The emphasis of this model was that development could be achieved by increased productivity, economic growth and industrialization, through heavy industries, capital intensive technologies, urbanization, centralized planning. Development was measured by gross national product (GNP), total or per capita income. There was a shift from a static, agricultural, primitive and rigid society to a dynamic, industrialized, urbanized and socially mobile nation.

Daniel Lerner and Wilbur Schramm (1964) supported the dominant paradigm and

advocated automation and technology for development and change.  They made significant contributions in identifying the role of communication for technological development.  The development community argued that the case of underdevelopment in the developing countries was not due to external causes but due to internal causes present within the nation and the individual as well as within the social structure.

Lerner and Schramm stressed that the individual was to be blamed to the extent that he was resistant to change and modernization, whereas Rogers, Bordenave and Beltran (1976) argued that the social structural constraints like government bureaucracy, top-heavy land tenure system, caste, exploitative linkages, etc. were to be blamed.

Lerner pointed that since the individual was identified as the cause of

underdevelopment, he was also the starting point to bring about social change. The

modernization of the individual‟s traditional values became the priority task. Rogers pointed that no effort was made to change the social structure though it had been identified as of the causes of underdevelopment.

Lerner identified four indices of development: industrialization, literacy, media exposure and political participation. People have to be mobile, empathetic,and participatory for development. Lerner (1958) suggested that media exposure, political participation and developing psychic empathy are necessary for development.   Modern society is a participant society and it works by consensus.

Lerner‟s Communication Model for Development Thus, in the dominant paradigm the communication flow was one way which was top- down vertical communication from the authorities to the people, the mass media channels were  used to mobilize the people for development and the audience was assigned a passive role for acceptance of social change.

At the cultural level, modernization advocated for a change in the mindset of individuals in poor countries who had to abandon traditional beliefs, considered an impediment toward modernization, and embrace attitudes and behaviors favorable to innovation and modernity (Lerner 1958). 

At the technocratic level, moderniza­tion required people with inquisitive minds who were guided by faith in the scien­tific method and rooted in the principles of enlightenment. 

At the political level, it required staunch advocates of the doctrine of liberalism based on political freedom and the adoption of democratic systems.

 Finally, at the economic level, it required blind faith in the virtues and power of the free market, with no or minimal govern­ment intervention.

Inter dependent Model of Development: Rogers, and many other

In the 1970s, this approach was being critically reviewed. Several viewpoints were forwarded to show why development did not work. One such approach is the “Interdependent Model”. The development philosophy of this approach is the same as that of the dominant paradigm to the extent that the emphasis is on economic growth for development. The supporters of this approach start with the assumption that development and underdevelopment are the two facets of the same process. One cannot understand the nature and essentiality of one in isolation from the other.

The development philosophy of the dependency model is that foreign penetration,technology and information have created underdevelopment rather than being a force for development. The economic and cultural dependency on developed countries shapes the  social and economic structures of many developing countries. Within this paradigm, the conception of development is a linear one based on trust in science, reason, technology, and the free market. The main role of commu­nication was to persuade people to embrace the core values and practices of mod­ernization. 

Disadvantage of Dominant Approach

 Critics of this paradigm attacked its economic focus. In this approach over emphasized the power of individual countries and ignored the elements such as colonization, past exploitation of resources and globalization. 

The Media communication & Modernization theory 

It is argued that the diffusion of the life-style of the developed country through mass media aggravates social inequality, because the communication and diffusion of the modernized life-style is only among the rural and urban elites. But the consumerism created by the mass media frustrates the poor as it does not fit in with their economic and social reality. The communication strategies suggested are: to educate the people about the vicious nature and the stifling dependency relationships, to mobilize national and regional support communication channels. They argue that mass media system in these countries is caught in the dependency relationships and at times actively supports them. Therefore, communication strategies should serve the educational and  mobilizing functions.   Mass media could be employed purposefully once structural transformation of society takes place

In the communication field, modernization theory led to the first systematic and rigorous attempts to research communication applications in the development context. A few scholars started to devote increasing attention to communication processes and effects, among them Lasswell (1948), Katz and Lazarfeld (1955), and Klapper (1960), while others, such as Lerner (1958), Rogers (1962), and Schramm (1964), became particularly interested in studying how communication could be used to foster national development, which at that time was conceived predomi­nantly in economic terms. 

Communication in the dominant paradigm is basically associated with the linear, mass media model aimed at transmitting information and messages from one point to another or many others, usually in a vertical or top-down fashion. This idea was rooted in the strong belief in the persuasive power of media, especially until the 1970s. Development communication was associated with the use of media to per^­suade people to achieve, maintain, and strengthen development goals, and media's role was paramount. UNESCO, for example, considered media to be a crucial means for promoting change,' and in the 1960s.

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Approaches to Development Communication(Dev Com)

There are varied approaches to handle development communication which are not

exclusive to each other. The main approaches are:

1. Diffusion/extension approach

2. Mass Media approach

3. Development support communication approach

4. Institutional  approach

5. Integrated approach

6. Localized approach to Dev Com

7. Planned strategy to Dev Com

Diffusion/ extension Approach to Development Communication:

The main focus of this approach is the adoption  of  technological and social innovations through diffusion of new ideas, services and products.  Diffusion of both material and social innovations is necessary for development.  Material innovations refer to economic and technological innovations and social innovations pertain to social needs and structure.  

The process of diffusion starts with the need of individual and community decisions for acceptance and rejection of innovations depend primarily on the needs of the adopters.  The resultant consequences of diffusion can be direct/indirect, latent/manifest, and functional/dysfunctional.  The early models of diffusion focussed only on material growth.  But it was soon realized that social growth along with material growth was necessary for diffusion of products, ideas and services.  Therefore, diffusion decisions have to handle the economic, technological and social constraints . 

Mass Media Approach Development Communication:  

A well-defined developed mass media and interpersonal communication infrastructure is necessary for development communication. It is necessary that these infrastructures should be accessible to the people, both physically and socially. The content of the messages should be balanced.  The content should be both rural and urban oriented and addressed to masses in both sectors. The messages should be need-based and they should appeal to the audience.

The integrated approach to development communication emphasizes the need to avoid duplication and waste in development efforts. The balance in the spread of

information facilities must be maintained both for rural and urban, backward and

prosperous areas.

Institutional approach focuses on education for development.

The emphasis is on literacy-universal education, adult education, formal and non-formal education. There is emphasis on need-based training and development – oriented programmes conducive to development.

Development support communication: 

In the development context, communication strives not only to inform and educate but also to motivate people and secure public participation in the growth and change process.  A widespread understanding of development plans is an essential stage in the public cooperation for national development.  

Development communication and development support communication are thus two different terms.

Development Communication communicates development messages to people for betterment of their economic and social conditions, where Development Support Communication addresses development planning and the plan of operation for implementation.  But often these two terms are substituted for each other.

Planned Strategy for Development Communication:

The success of development communication depends on team approach, i.e. the coordination between the communication agencies (extension workers, radio, TV, Press, etc.) and development agencies.  

Community-based communication system approaches may be evolved to ensure greater participation of local people in planning and production of communication material which is community-based.   

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Prerequisites of Development Communication

There are two perspectives from which we need communication for development

communication‟s needs and audience‟s needs. 
The communicator may communicate by information and education, and thus motivate the masses.  
The audience may communicate for development information, making demands for development and asking solutions for development problems. These two perspectives suggest certain prerequisites for development communication:

 (i) human and localized approach to communication rather than abstract and centralized;

(ii) credibility and role of communication links, and

(iii) access to communication.

Development Threshold:

Human and localized approach suggest that communication efforts should be tailored to the needs, psychological dispositions of people and the development threshold of people. Development threshold” is significant for development communication. For example, there is a marked difference between the development threshold of rural and urban society, between elites and masses, men and women within the urban and rural society. These differences in the threshold are termed as “development gap”.

Development gap is identified with socio-economic gap, knowledge gap, and communication gap. Development gap suggests that people in different development thresholds need different development communication handling for effective development. The development-gap hypothesis is that patterns of communication may lead the have–nots away from the mainstream of development thus creating gap between the haves and the have-nots three sub factors: technical, theoretical and potential reach of the media; distribution of media among people; and audience of the interpersonal infrastructure. The availability of mass-media, media institutions in a country itself is no guarantee that media will be used by the people:

(i)                mass media are usually not available where they are needed the most for development purposes,

(ii)              whatever media are available and are received usually do not carry the kind of information that might aid development,

(iii)            the mass media content may not be relevant enough in a given situation to aid development and

(iv)           even if functionally relevant information is available, the infrastructure and input may not be available.

For example  the participation in any development programme depends on the level of the motivation of people. The level of motivation depends on the perceived need-based programmes and sustained community interest in the development  programmes. Motivation results from various supports which are built into the development programmes and for the development programmes such as support from traditional value systems, leadership of community, experts and change agents. 

Source:- Global Media Journal – Indian Edition/ISSN 2249-5835

DEVELOPMENT COMMUNICATION: A PURPOSIVE COMMUNICATION WITH SOCIAL CONSCIENCE - AN INDIAN PERSPECTIVE

Dr Rajesh Kumar

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