Theatrical makeup

 The art of changing the external appearance of an actor, primarily his face, with the aid of paints, plastic and hair patches,wigs, and different hair-dos. Makeup  used to assist in creating the appearance of  the characters that actors portray during a theater production.


In the Greek and Roman theatre the actors’ use of masks precluded the need for makeup, allowing them to portray another gender, age, or entirely different likeness. Thespis, considered to be the first actor, used white lead and wine to paint his face. Early stage lighting, provided first by candles and later by oil lamps, was dim and ineffectual; consequently, crudity in makeup passed unnoticed. With the introduction of gas, limelights, and, finally, electric lights into the theatre came the need for new makeup materials and more skillful techniques of application. Crude, inartistic effects could not be hidden under the revealing light of electricity. 

A solution was found with the use of stick greasepaint, invented in the 1860s in Germany by Ludwig Leichner, a Wagnerian opera singer. Advancements in stage lighting technology required stage makeup to evolve beyond one over-all face color to a multidimensional craft.On the modern stage, makeup is a necessity because powerful stage-lighting systems may remove all colour from a performer’s complexion and will eliminate shadows and lines. Makeup restores this colour and defines the facial features to ensure a natural appearance. It also helps the player to look and feel the part, a consideration especially helpful in character interpretations. A theatrical makeup kit typically includes makeup base colours, rouges, coloured liners for shadow and highlighting effects, eye makeup and false eyelashes, various cleansers, powder and powder puffs, putties for making prosthetic features, adhesives, wigs, and facial hairpieces or mohair to construct them. 

In the religious plays of medieval Europe, actors playing God or Christ painted their faces white or sometimes gold, while the faces of angels were coloured bright red.

 During the Renaissance the actors were creative and resourceful when making-over their faces. Popular characters in French farce wore false beards of lamb’s wool and whitened their faces with flour. It is known that on the stage of Elizabethan England, actors playing ghosts and murderers powdered their faces with chalk and that those appearing as blacks and Moors were blackened with soot or burnt cork. Little attempt was made to achieve historical accuracy in either makeup or costuming until early in the 19th century.   They used lamb's wool for false beards and flour as face paint. 

What costumes did actors wear?
In Shakespeare’s time, clothes reflected a person’s status in society – there were laws controlling what you could wear. As plays had kings, queens and wealthy people in them, the actors’ costumes reflected their characters social status. Costumes were mainly the modern dress of the time. So for less important roles, actors might wear their own clothes.   A company probably spent about £300 a year on costumes, which in todays money would be over £35,000

What about women’s costumes?
In Shakespeare’s time all actors were male. Men and boys played all the female parts.  They also wore wigs which, by their colour and styles, showed the age and status of their character.

The company usually owned some costumes and reused them as often as possible. The style of Queen Elizabeth was obviously more
influential in women. The Queen had red hair, so this colour 
became a real vogue. Women emulated this colour or the 
yellow as the ideals of beauty with a mixture of saffron, cumin 
seed, celandine and oil. Another tendency was the idea that a high forehead was considered very attractive, so women shaved the hair from their front hairlines

More remarkable and probably used by Shakespeare were the wigs. When the men of  this time went bald, they depended upon wigs 
to help them keep up the latest fashion.  The wigs worn at his time were usually a fashionable white or yellow colour. 

Comic effects could also be obtained by combing the natural hair in a messy way or with hats. Beards and moustaches were also 

extended or given an eccentric shape, as in these Shakespearean characters.

Another aspect dealing with make-up was to characterise the actors (and later, actresses). For example, to represent the “clown” or “joker”, the “old man” or an“blackamoors” or “Turks” some painting was required. This way, physic stereotypes were reinforced, thus creating a bigger sense of identification and empathy in the audience. At the same time, some face features such as noses, wrinkles or eyes were highlighted with a good effect. The make-up was combined with false noses, beards, wigs and other props, and its effect could go even further with the use of prosthetic parts of the face or the body. 

Finally, actors could also wear partial or total masks to produce a greater effect 

and emphasize funny or comic traits.

Shakespeare’s magnificence also was  present in this field, since he observed those models and stereotypes and decided among them to create his characters. Just by preserving or deforming those models -with the use of hairstyle and make-up- he made people feel and laugh, without the need of words, which would be the culmination of his talent and his wit. 

Makeup and lighting
Light's effect on makeup

• Pink tends to gray the cool colors and intensify the warm ones. Yellow becomes more orange.

• Flesh pink flatters most makeup.

• Fire red ruins makeup. All but the darker flesh tones virtually disappear. Light and medium rouge fade into the foundation, whereas the dark red rouges turn a reddish brown. Yellow becomes orange, and the cool shading colors become shades of gray and black.

• Bastard amber is flattering because it picks up the warm pinks and flesh tones in the makeup.

• Amber and orange intensifies and yellow most flesh colors. They turn rouges more orange. Cool colors are grayed.

• Green grays all flesh tones and rouges in proportion to its intensity. Green will be intensified. Yellow and blue will become greener.

• Light blue-green lowers the intensity of the base colors. One should generally use very little rouge under this type of light.

• Green-blue washes out pale flesh tones, and will gray medium and deep flesh tones, as well as all reds.

• Blues gray most flesh tones and cause them to appear more red or purple.

• Violet causes orange, flame, and scarlet to become redder. Rouge appears more intense.

• Purple affects makeup like violet lighting, except reds and oranges will be even more intense, and most blues will look violet.

• 1.     Based on clothing worn at the time of the action

• 2.     Indicate a particular country or region

• 3.     Indicate a particular place

• 4.     Indicate a time of day or occasion

I.      The Functions of Costume Design

A.    Establish time and place

B.    Establish social and economic status

C.    Identify occupation or lifestyle

D.    Indicate gender and reflect age

E.    Reflect a character’s a typicality

F.    Costumes do not always adhere to realistic standards

G.   Reflect mood and atmosphere

H.    Establish a particular style

I.      Reflect formalized conventions

J.     Reflect a level of exaggeration

K.    Enhance or impede movement

L.     Establish or clarify character relationships by:

M.   Establish the relative importance of characters

N.    Underline the development of the dramatic action

O.    Create both variety and unity

P.    Alter an actor’s appearance;  A costume may be designed to make an actor appear taller, shorter, fatter, thinner, plainer, etc.

Lighting controls makeup to a high degree.  Conversely, skillful lighting can greatly aid the art of makeup and its effectiveness . Close communication between the lighting director and the makeup artist is crucial for the best possible effect.

Understanding light's effect on makeup and various shades and pigments is important when designing a performer’s makeup. The following are among the basic rules of light: nothing has color until light is reflected from it; an object appears black when all of the light is absorbed; an object appears white when all of the light is reflected. If certain rays are absorbed and others are reflected, the reflected rays determine the color.

Because stage actors are seen from farther away than actors on screen, it is crucial that their makeup is more dramatic and professionally done. Many higher-learning institutions have drama departments where all aspects of theater are taught, including the art of theatrical makeup. Some independent agencies also provide classes in theatrical makeup, and even online courses are available. Through training, makeup artists learn important techniques such as hand-eye coordination, ability to draw straight lines and consistent shapes, creativity, good grooming and personal hygiene habits, etc. Many makeup artists who specialize in theatrical makeup build portfolios to show their clients and employers. Many of them work as freelance makeup artists or work for cosmetics brands in department stores.

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What is Cross-Cultural Communication? Barriers in Cross-Cultural Communication

The phrase cross-cultural communication describes the ability to successfully form, foster, and improve relationships with members of a culture different from one's own. 

Cross-cultural communication defined language and cultural misinterpretations.  It is based on knowledge of many factors, such as the other culture's values, perceptions, manners, social structure, and decision-making practices, and an understanding of how members of the group communicate--verbally, non-verbally,  in various  social contexts.

Cross-cultural communication  involves an understanding of how people from different cultures speak, communicate and perceive the world around them. Language differences, high-context vs. low-context cultures, nonverbal differences and power distance are major factors that can affect cross-cultural communication

Origins 

The study of cross-cultural communication was originally found in cold war period. These fields include anthropology, cultural studies, psychology and communication. 

Aspects of Cross Cultural Communication or Challenges in Cross-cultural communication

There are several parameters that may be perceived differently by people of different cultures. These may include ethnocentricm, ethno

Ethnocentrism

In ethnocentrism there is a tendency exist that  to put one's own culture as a center of influence and to use it as a point of reference to measure others.   Generally, ethnocentric persons have the tendency to interpret the other culture, based on their own cultural values. The one cultural people may consider another language as inferior or illogical. Ethnocentrism is a belief in the centrality of one’s own culture. It often involves judging aspects of another culture by the standards of one’s own.Ethnocentrism refers to the superiority feeling of the members of a certain culture. Ethnocentrism is difficult to prevent in advance because it is often an unconscious behavior.

 The ethnocentrism can become an obstacle for an efficient empathy. The ethnocentrism people could not understand each society has its own culture and values. 

The three stages in ethnocentrism

        Denial, Defence and Minimization.

● Denial: Avoids new culture; isolated; denies the existence of new culture

● Defence: Negative stereotyping; superiority of one’s own culture eg. Nazis

● Minimization: Hide cultural variations; universal truth or values based on one’s own assumptions.

Ethnopaulism means use of name-calling and slurs in reference to other cultures

Cultural Relativism 
Cultural relativism is opposite of ethnocentrism . In this context one has to  assess other cultures neutrally, based on their own  context rather than on one's own culture. It is the refusal to make any judgement on the cultural values of other individuals, institutions or cultures. While it avoids the problem of prejudice, it is inadequate, since it involves a denial – or at least a suspension – of your own values.

Language - Misunderstandings are common among people who speak the same language, so it is not surprising that people from different cultural and linguistic backgrounds face communication barriers. Anything from the mispronunciation of a word to a lack of specificity can lead to misunderstandings. For example, if a sales director in New York asks a contractor in Brazil to do something soon, the two parties may have a different interpretation of the word 'soon.' Language is a reflection of culture, and different cultures have very different ways of assigning meanings to words.

Behavior - Cultural differences in body language and other behaviors can also cause mis communications. For example, in the U.S. it is important to make eye contact with someone who is speaking to you or they may think you are distracted or uninterested. However, in many Asian countries eye contact can be a sign of disrespect or a challenge to authority. There are many other cultural differences in body language that can create barriers to effective communication. These include differences in facial expressions, the use of nodding to indicate agreement or understanding, and the amount of space to give someone with whom you are having a conversation.

Stereotypes - Stereotypes are assumptions people make about the characteristics of members of a cultural or social group. Many stereotypes are negative or even hostile and are a serious barrier to workplace communication. If you make a joke about expecting your Latin American colleague to arrive late for a meeting, you may damage your professional relationship. While some cultures may share a general set of characteristics, it is never okay to assume that individual members of a group have those same characteristics.

Prejudice in Communication

Another problem for intercultural communication is prejudice, a judgment made on the basis of past experience rather than an evaluation of present circumstances. Like ethnocentrism, prejudice tends to emphasize “my” values at the expense of “your” values. In stereotyping, a judgment made on the basis of communicated information rather than personal experience. Prejudice can be individual or institutional Individual prejudice is focused on cultural out-groups, such as members of other races, religions or lifestyles.

Institutional prejudice is imbedded in organizations. It may not be conscious, but it gives evidence of discrimination against members of cultural out-groups in situations such as university or hospital admission policies, hiring practices, housing, and transportation security screening.

High and Low Context Cultures: Context is the most important cultural dimension and also very difficult to define. Anthropologist Edward T Hall  was originate the idea of context in culture. Hall breaks up culture into two main groups: High and Low context cultures.  He refers to context as the stimuli, environment or surrounding.  Hall explains that low-context cultures assume that the individuals know very little about what they are being told, and therefore must be given a lot of background information.  High-Context cultures assume the individual is knowledgeable about the subject and has to be given very little background information.

Nonverbal Differences

Gestures and eye contact are two areas of nonverbal communication that are utilized differently across cultures.  For example, American workers tend to wave their hand and use a finger to point when giving nonverbal direction. Extreme gesturing is considered rude in some cultures. Japanies would never use a finger to point towards another person because that gesture is considered rude in Japan. Instead, he might gesture with an open hand, with his palm facing up, toward the person.

Eye contact is another form of nonverbal communication. In the U.S., eye contact is a good thing and is seen as a reflection of honesty and straightforwardness. However, in some Asian and Middle Eastern cultures, prolonged eye contact can be seen as rude or aggressive in many situations. 

Language Differences

The biggest issue dealing with cross-cultural communication is the difficulty created by language barriers. 

Power Distance

The next cross-cultural issue regards how individuals deal with power distance.

Specifically, five types of distance can be observed:

The distance of disparagement arises when two groups compete for the same resources. Such situations lead to relationships that are very high in ethnocentrism and very low in cultural relativism. It gives rise to frequent incidents of ethnopaulism.
The distance of avoidance likewise exists in an environment high in ethnocentrism and low in cultural relativism.
The distance of indifference involves moderate levels of both ethnocentrism and cultural relativism associated with an insensitivity to the concerns of others and the use of ethnically disparaging terms. 
The distance of sensitivity is based on a low level of ethnocentrism and a high level of cultural pluralism. In this situation, speech is used deliberately to reduce the social distance between cultural groups.

The distance of equality exists within an environment of a very low level of ethnocentrism and a very high level of cultural pluralism. Speech at this distance avoids making judgments against others..

 Guidelines for Inter cultural Communication

Here are some guidelines drawn from communication research and practice that can foster better communication among various cultures.

1. Understand your own culture and communication variables such as social role, symbolism, thought patterns, worldview, silence and particularly the various nonverbal aspects of communication .

2.     Learn the communication rules for the other culture by reflecting on its approach to nonverbal and other aspects of communication. Be sensitive to verbal and nonverbal language codes, and use language appropriate for the culture or co-culture with which you are trying to communicate.
3.       Approach intercultural communication with a positive attitude and with the goal of understanding the other side rather than preaching about or defending our own.  
4.      Avoid ethnocentrism that interprets everything on the basis of your own social and cultural values. Instead, try to understand how a concept, product or practice fits into the other culture. 
5.     Be flexible, we  should change your own communication style or our interpretation of the communication style of the other person.

 Unit Quiz

1.      Define ethnopaulism.

2.      Give an example of changing social attitudes toward prejudice.

3.      Give examples of the distance of avoidance, the distance of equality, and the distance of disparagement.

4.      Define prejudice.

5.      Define culture.

6.      Give an example of an uncertainty-accepting culture and an implicit-rule culture.

7.      Define cultural relativism. Discuss the role the ethnocentrism plays in your social environment.

8.      Discuss how degree of formality or degree of personalness affects communication in intercultural situations.

9.      Note who/what you consider your in-group, and give examples of groups within your society who you consider to be out-groups. Discuss the reasons for making these distinctions.

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Intercultural Communication-Cross-cultural communication

                                            Intercultural Communication

Intercultural communication is defined as communication, and the study of it, among peoples of different cultural, ethnic and tribal backgrounds. Because of the inherent differences between the encoder and decoder, the risk of  Misunderstanding is particularly high in intercultural situations. The non verbal communication(symbolic aspect of communication) and its reliance on encoding and decoding are particularly important in intercultural communication, which encompasses both verbal and nonverbal elements.

An important aspect of intercultural communication is an understanding of social role relationships and expectations within various cultures.

 Personalness deals with what is expected and tolerated. This varies greatly, from the reserve of

Asian society to the gregariousness of Latin and Mediterranean cultures.

 Formality is a related area, often focusing on existing relationships such as teacher-student,

doctor-patient, salesman-buyer whether to use first names or surnames and whether to accompany these with honorifics such as “mister” in English.

Social hierarchy focuses on cultural norms, particularly those associated with authority or station

in life. In some cultures, social deference is very important; in others, social equality is the norm.

 The degree of allowable deviation is another element in intercultural communication, dealing

with acceptable looseness or tightness within a social system.. Focus on this element leads to distinguishing between two types of societies: individualistic cultures that value individual freedom, choice and uniqueness, and collectivist cultures that value the group over the individual.

 

 Terms and Concepts in Intercultural Communication

Etic is a communication term referring to the understanding or explanation of a culture from outside. 

Emic refers to understanding or explanation of a culture from within.

Culture is the dynamic and living patterns that define a society, including its characteristic beliefs, attitudes, habits and behaviors. Aspects of culture include language,religion, nationality, ethnicity, values, customs, family and social structures, and so on. Being part of a culture is learned, initially from parents and family, later from widening social surroundings. Culture also incorporates symbols, rituals, values, heroes and myths, which combine to help both transmit and reinforce the culture.

 Race is a term used to define people by physical or sociohistorical characteristics according to their common ancestry. 

Ethnicity refers to groups within a race who share a common culture. Both terms are undergoing change.

Intracultural communication is the study of communication within a particular cultural or social group.  

Intercultural communication is the study of communication among various cultures.

 Interethnic communication between people of different ethnic background within the same race(Tamils),

 Interreligious communication ; the relation between people of different religious affiliations or backgrounds),

Interdenominational communication the relatin between people of different sects or denominations within a single religion. Siva, vaishnava,

Cross-cultural communication is the study of a particular idea or interaction within one culture, compared with the same idea or interaction within other cultures.

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