|
Agenda
setting theory propounded by Maxwell Mc combs and Donald Shaw in the year
1970s. According to agenda setting theory, mass media set the agenda for
public opinion by highlighting certain issues. The agenda setting theory
telling people not what to think, but what to think of. and how people should
think about.
Lippmann
proposed that people did not respond directly to the events in the real world
but lived in a pseudo environment, media furnishing the pseudo environment.
The basic ideas of the theory can be to the work of Walter Lippman a prominent American Journalist. Walter Lippmann : Walter Lippmann (1889-1974) was the most influential American journalist of the 20th century. Lippmann was the original and most prophetic analyst of the modern media. Lippmann saw the purpose of journalism as "intelligence work". He won the annual Pulitzer Prize for International Reporting
The media agenda setting function in a three
process
Agenda
setting is believed to occur because the press must be selective in reporting
the news. News outlets act as gatekeepers of information and make choices
about what to report and what not. The main concept associated with the
agenda setting theory is gate
keeping, Priming
and framing
If we consider that he source and encoder are one person decoder and destination are another and the signal is language. This diagram represents human communication. The personality box would get bigger and noise box would get smaller.
6.Shannon and Weaver-mathematical model of communication-
1949
The academic field of mass communication were heavily influenced by the engineering/mathematical model of communication. Three level of problems/Noises 7.The Newcomb’s Model THEODORE M.NEWCOMB (July 24, 1903) ABX” model of communication. He concentrates on the social purpose of communication, showing all communication as a means of sustaining relationships between people. 8.HYPODERMIC NEEDLE THEORY Magic Bullet Theory The Hypodermic Needle Theory, also known as the ‘magic bullet’ theory, says the media has a powerful and direct effect on audiences by ‘injecting’ them with messages. The Hypodermic Needle Theory no longer carries the respect , its accuracy was found to be questionable. 9.Normative Theory - CLASSICAL THEORIES-Press theories
Authoritrian Theory
2.Free Press Theory A responsible press should provide a full, truthful, comprehensive and intelligent account of the days’ events in a context which giving them meaning. 10.TWO STEP FLOW THEORY-KATZ AND LAZARFELD’S MODEL 1944 -55 The opinions of people in a group are influenced by what they hear from "opinion leaders". An individual who is a member of a group manifests certain characteristics in his thinking and behaviour that contribute to the formation of "public opinion". The opinion of the leader is based on rational thinking due to education and experience. They weigh the pros and cons of the information they receive and then give their judgement on it. In the process of communication, the sender or source of the message is referred to as the encoder. The person receiving the message and decodes it is referred to as the decoder. Feedback, a term form cybernetics, the study of messages. It refers to an inquiry, response or experiment. Feedback can be positive (when the required result is achieved) or negative; instantaneous(when the response is immediate) or delayed. Feedback is used to gauge the effectivenss of a particular message put forth or situation that has taken place. In all communication, there is a sender, a message/communication and a receiver. The meaning of a message is greatly dependent on the culture in which it is transmitted. The sender encodes a message, the receiver decodes it. Between the sender, the message and receiver, noise gets in the way and complicates the process. A noiseless communication does not exist. There always is some kind of noise entering the communication. Noise can be physical noise for example static or psychological i.e. when culture, taboos or values come into play to disrupt the normal transmission process of communication. Misunderstanding of a particular message i.e. distortion of meaning is a form of noise, example, the game of Chinese Whisper"a person starts off with a particular message and the original message may be distorted by the time it comes to the final  player.Media rarely directly influence individuals. 12. How can color tell a story? Color Theory Film makes better use of color as a storytelling tool than even Gladiator. Cinema storytelling that we should never neglect it. Neither Color Strategy Is Correct Over The Other, But It Is Easy To Both See And Feel That The Response From The Viewer Will Be Much Different When They Look At Each Image. 
nalogous
Colors Are Colors That Are Next To Each Other On The Color Wheel. These
Colors, When They Appear Together, Provide A Smooth And Continuous Tone. Colors
That Are Located Opposite To One Another On The Color Wheel
Are Complementary Colors. When Complementary Colors Appear Next To
Each Other They Provide More Of A Dramatic And High Contrast Look.
Yellow Dick Tracy- mavuna ragam Yellow Dick Tracy- mavuna ragam Blue Shawshank Redemption Orange The Godfather Orange is the welcoming color, warm sunsets and Halloween pumpkins. In the opening scene of The Godfather the Don’s office is lit with an amber and orange light. The film is lit romantically with pastel orange shades. Throughout the film the orange shades turn more red as more is revealed within the crime underworld. Green Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon 6. Purple Chicago In the four-minute montage, Mtz-Seara explores vimeo.com innocence, passion, insecurity, sociability, madness, eroticism, and more as the colorful video transitions from one masterful scene to another. Cinematography: Color Simplicity RED – anger, passion, rage, desire, excitement, energy, speed, strength, power, heat, love, aggression, danger, fire, blood, war, violence PINK – love, innocence, healthy, happy, content, romantic, charming, playfulness, soft, delicate, feminine YELLOW – wisdom, knowledge, relaxation, joy, happiness, optimism, idealism, imagination, hope, sunshine, summer, dishonesty, cowardice, betrayal, jealousy, covetousness, deceit, illness, hazard ORANGE – humor, energy, balance, warmth, enthusiasm, vibrant, expansive, flamboyant GREEN – healing, soothing, perseverance, tenacity, self-awareness, proud, unchanging nature, environment, healthy, good luck, renewal, youth, vigour, spring, generosity, fertility, jealousy, inexperience, envy BLUE – faith, spirituality, contentment, loyalty, fulfillment peace, tranquility, calm, stability, harmony, unity, trust, truth, confidence, conservatism, security, cleanliness, order, sky, water, cold, technology, depression PURPLE/VIOLET – erotic, royalty, nobility, spirituality, ceremony, mysterious, transformation, wisdom, enlightenment, cruelty, arrogance, mourning, power, sensitive, intimacy BROWN – materialistic, sensation, earth, home, outdoors, reliability, comfort, endurance, stability, simplicity BLACK – No, power, sexuality, sophistication, formality, elegance, wealth, mystery, fear, anonymity, unhappiness, depth, style, evil, sadness, remorse, anger WHITE – Yes, protection, love, reverence, purity, simplicity, cleanliness, peace, humility, precision, innocence, youth, birth, winter, snow, good, sterility, marriage (Western cultures), death (Eastern cultures), cold, clinical, sterile SILVER – riches, glamorous, distinguished, earthy, natural, sleek, elegant, high-tech GOLD – precious, riches, extravagance. warm, wealth, prosperity, grandeur 13.Rogers' Diffusion of Innovation theory Pioneered in 1943 by Bryce Ryan and Neil Gross of Iowa State University . This theory mark out the process by which a new idea or practice is communicated through certain channels over time among members of a social system. Diffusion approaches believe progress is achieved by inducing change in individuals' attitudes and behaviors. This approaches linked to the participatory model. Rogers (Rogers, 2005, p. 5) defines diffusion as "the process in which an innovation is communicated though certain channels over time among the members of a social system". Four Elements of Diffusion of Innovation
There are four key elements that make up this
definition. These interacting factors include ‘innovation’, ‘communication’,
‘time’ and ‘social system’.
1.
Innovation
2. Communication Channels
3. Time
4. Social System
A social system has a definite
structure, defined as the patterned arrangements of the units in a system
and a set of norms.
Hence, it is clear diffusion and adoption of innovation are greatly
affected by the social system and the characteristics of the individual units
of that system.
1.
Knowledge Stage
2. Persuasion Stage
3. Decision Stage
4. Implementation Stage
5. Confirmation Stage
14. USES AND GRATIFICATION
THEORY
1. Entertainment - sometimes we simply use the media for enjoyment, relaxation or just to fill time. 2) Personal Relationships (substitute of media for companionship). 3) Personal identity or individual psychology (value reinforcement, self understanding.) 4) Surveillance (information that may help an individual accomplish tasks.)
15.Berlo's SMCR Model of Communication
S -Sender
Communication skills of a person is a factor that affects the communication process. If the sender has good communication skills, the message will be communicated better than if the sender's communication skills are not good. Similarly, if the receiver can not grasp the message, then the communication will not be effective. Communication skills include the skills to speak, present, read, write, listening, etc. The attitude of the sender and the receiver creates the effect of the message. The person's attitude towards self, the receiver and the environment changes the meaning and effect of the message. Familiarity with the subject of the message makes the communicated message have its effect more. Knowledge on the subject matter makes the communicator send the message effectively. Values, beliefs, laws, rules, religion and many other social factors affect the sender's way of communicating the message. It creates difference in the generation of message. Place and situation also fall under social systems. Cultural differences make messages different. A person from one culture might find something offensive which is very much accepted in another culture. Content is the thing that is in the message. The whole message from beginning to end is the content. Elements are the non verbal things that tag along with the content like gestures, signs, language, etc. Treatment is the way in which the message is conveyed to the receiver. Treatment also effects the feedback of the receiver. The structure of the message or the way it has been structured or arranged, affects the effectiveness of the message. Code is the form in which the message is sent. It might be in the form of language, text, video, etc. C-Channel R- Receiver Criticisms of Berlo's SMCR Model: 16.CULTIVATION THEORY 17.Social Learning Theory Necessary conditions for effective modelling 18.Lasswell's model | Communication Theory- Cause And Effects Theory 19.AIDA Model -THEORY Close to purchasing, but still a long way from the cash register, are those who are merely aware of its existence. 2. Up a step are prospects who know what the product has to offer. 3. Still closer to purchasing are those who have favourable attitudes toward the product ñ those who like the product. 4. Those whose favourable attitudes have developed to the point of preference over all other possibilities are up still another step. 5. Even closer to purchasing are customers who couple preference with a desire to buy and the conviction that the purchase would be wise. 6. Finally, of course, is the step which translates this attitude into actual purchase. (Lavidge & Steiner , 1961, p. 59) 2- How is the Development Communication Theory relevant to developing nations? 3- What is the role of opinion leaders? Explain with reference to communication flow theories. 4- Explain 2 theories that highlight the dynamic nature of communication. 2- In the light of the powerful effects of the media on its audiences, is there any danger of the media doing more harm than good? Elucidate your answer with recent and relevant examples 3- What is the need for studying media theories? 4- How is Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs relevant as a tool in understanding media uses and gratifications? 5- What is the role of feedback in communication? How does ‘noise’ affect feedback.Elucidate with examples
xTheories of Communication
1. Agenda Setting Theory
2. Framing
Theory
3. Spiral
Of Silence
4. Aristotle’s Model Of Communication” Is The Earliest Mass Communication
Model
5. Osgood-
Schramm Circular Model Of Communication-1955
7. The Newcomb’s Model Theodore M.Newcomb
(July 24, 1903) Abx” Model Of Communication
8. Hypodermic Needle Theory Magic Bullet
Theory.
9. Normative
Theory - Classical Theories-Press Theories
11. Westley And Maclean’s Model Of Communication
13. Rogers' Diffusion Of Innovation Theory
14. Uses
& Gratification Theory
15. Cultivation Theory
16. Berlo's SMCR Model of
Communication
17. Social Learning Theory
18. Lasswell's model | Communication TheoryCause
And Effects Theory
19. ADVERTISING –THEORY
Theories of Communication
1.Agenda setting theory
2. Framing Theory
3. Spiral of Silence
4.“Aristotle’s Model of Communication” is the
earliest mass communication model .
Basic Concept:
5.OSGOOD- SCHRAMM Circular MODEL OF
COMMUNICATION-1955 or The process and effects of
communication-1955
It was initiated by Aristotle a great philosopher. He proposed
this model before 300 B.C .
He found the importance of audience role in communication chain.
This model is more focused on public speaking than
interpersonal communication.
5 Basic elements
(i) Speaker,(ii) Speech, (iii) Occasion,(iv) Audience (v) Effect.
Aristotle’s Communication Model
Aristotle advises speakers to build speech for different audience on
different time (occasion) and for different effects.
Speaker plays an important role in Public speaking.
The speaker must prepare his speech
Analysis audience needs before he enters into the stage.
His words should influence in audience mind and persuade their thoughts
towards him.
Example:Hitlor gave brave speech to his soldiers in the war field to
defeat Russion/ England Army.
Speaker
- Hitlor,
Speech
- about his
invasion,Occasion -
II World War field
Audience -
Soldiers,
Effect
- To defeat Russia
Wilbur Schramm's models
presents a complete treatment of the fundamentals of communication.
According to Wibur Schramm, to know how communication works. It
would be necessary to study the communication process in general when two
people communicate with each other there occurs a sharing of information, idea,
or an attitude. In this process of sharing at least three elements are
involved the source or the communicator, the message or the content, and the
destination or the receiver.
It can happen within our sel
f(Intra personal communication) or two people(Inter personal
communication) each person acts as both sender and receiver and hence use
interpretation.
It is simultaneously take
place e.g. encoding, interpret and decoding.
In circular model we found
that communication ending up where it started off.In fact as an communication
goes on the noise get less and personality more helpful for effective
communication.
This model also known as
" The process and Efeeects of communication"1955. In
this model he introduced the concept of field of experience. In addition
reemphasising the element of source, message and destination. It
suggested the importance of encoding and decoding process and role of field
experience.
Shannon and Weaver’s mathematical theory of communication is widely
accepted as one of the main seeds of communication studies.
Communication was conceived as a linear model of transmission
of a message from a source to a receiver via a signal producing
transmitter. By this approach we understand how to send a maximum amount
of information along a given channel to carry information.
Shannon and Weaver produced a general
model of communication known after them as the Shannon-Weaver Model. It involved breaking down an information system into
sub-systems so as to evaluate the efficiency of various communication channels
and codes.They propose that all communication
must include six elements:
· Source,
Encoder,Channel,Message,Decoder,Receiver
Features of Shannon and Weavers model
(i) It presents communication as linear
process
(ii) It is a simple model.
(iii) The message is decide by
the source transmitted into a signal(encode) which is sent through
a channel to the receiver
for example: In
conversation the mouth is transmitter, the signal is the sound wave which pass
through the channel of the air and ear is receiver
Technical problem- The simple to understand
Semantic problem-easy to identify but hard to solve
Effective problem- as communication as manipulation or propaganda
The three levels are interrelated and interdependent.
The source is seen as the decision maker and he decides which
message to send.
This selected message is then changed by the transmitter in to a signal
which is sent through a channel to the receiver.
In this model introduced the term noise. This noises may be a
blinding fog blurred rain, soaked pages of a newspaper.
He was a great pioneer in
the field of social psychology.Merely 50 years he worked for the
improvement of human motivation, perception and learning to shape the
deep understanding of social process.
He published a new social
approach in field of communication which is called “ABX” system (later it
became Newcomb’s model)
He gives different approach
to the communication process.
The main purpose of this
theory is to introduce the role of communication in a social
relationship(society) and to maintain social equilibrium within
the social system.
He does not include the
message as a separate entity in his diagram.
 The Newcomb’s Model
The Newcomb’s model works in
a triangular format or A-B-X system
A – Sender
B – Receiver
X – Matter of Concern
The relationship between A
and B is like student and teacher, government and public or newspaper and
readers.
Sender and Receiver may work
in a same flow but the same time some factor like “X” may affect their flow of
relationship.
“X” it may be third persons,
issue, topic or policy.
The "hypodermic needle theory" implied mass media had
a direct, immediate and powerful effect on
its audiences. The mass media in the 1940s and 1950s were perceived as a
powerful influence on behaviour change. Several factors contributed to this
"strong effects" theory of communication,
Hitler's monopolization of the mass media during World war II to
unify the German public behind the Nazi party
Core Assumptions and Statements
1.The theory suggests that the mass media could influence a very
large group of people directly and uniformly by ‘shooting’ or ‘injecting’
them with appropriate messages designed to trigger a desired response.
2.This theory (a bullet and a needle) suggest a powerful and direct
flow of information from the sender to the receiver.
3.The bullet theory graphically suggests that the message is a
bullet, fired from the "media gun" into the viewer's
"head".
4. The hypodermic needle model suggests that media messages are
injected straight into a passive audience which is immediately
influenced by the message.
They express the view that the media is a dangerous means of
communicating an idea because the receiver or audience is
powerless to resist the impact of the message.
There is no escape from the effect of the message in these
models. The population is seen as a sitting duck and passive. They are
seen as having a lot media material "shot" at them. People end up
thinking what they are told because there is no other source of information.
Media theorists have classified the "War of the Worlds" broadcast
as the archetypal example of the Magic Bullet Theory.This is exactly how the
theory worked, by injecting the message directly into the
"bloodstream" of the public, attempting to create a uniform thinking.
The effects of the broadcast suggested that the media could manipulate a
passive and gullible public, leading theorists to believe this was one of the
primary ways media authors shaped audience perception.
There are six normative theories . In !950 Siebert et
al mentioned four theories, two more were added by Mc Quail in !980
This theory stemmed from the authoritarian
philosophy of Plato (407 - 327 B.C), who thought that the State was
safe only in the hands of a few wise men. Thomas
Hobbes (1588 - 1679), a British academician, argued that the power to
maintain order was sovereign and individual objections were to be
ignored. Engel, a German thinker further
reinforced the theory by stating that freedom came into its supreme right only
under Authoritarianism.
According to Authoritrian Theory, Press is subordinated to the
state power. It acts according to the interest of ruling class or
the e state power or by an established authority. It also give
justification for the censorship and control and punishment for
any kind of deviation from set of rules and guidelines. Such censorship
is more rigidly enforced in times of war and during internal and external
emergencies.
Eg in 1975 Indira Gandhi government
imposed censorship of press in The Emergency.
It was removed at the end of the Emergency rule.
Both dictatorial and democratic regimes choice to such
authoritarian control of the media. Also some documentaries and movies baned
by Indian Govt.
Eg. Dam999 movie baned in Tamilnadu , In 2002, the film War
and Peace, depicting scenes of nuclear testing and the September 11,
2001 attacks, created by Anand Patwardhan, In 1999 Maharashtra government banned
the Marathi play
'Me Nathuram Godse Boltoy"
or 'I am Nathuram Godse Speaking"
Advocates of this theory were Lao Tzu,
an early 16th century philosopher , John Locke of Great Britain in
the17th century, John Milton, the epic poet and John Stuart
Mill, an essayist ("On Liberty"). George Orwell defined
libertarianism as "allowing people to say things you do not want to
hear". Libertarians argued that the
press should be seen as the Fourth Estate reflecting public opinion.
The fundamental right of an individual freedom of
expression or libertarianism make a base of this theory. It also
called liberation theory. This theory recommend that any individual
is free to punish whatever he likes, can held opinions fully to
express them, to assemble and organize with other.
This theory basis is go back to 17 th century. The epic
poet John Milton and John Stuart Mill are the apologists of this
theory. It is contrast with authoritarian theory.
It is the only fully respected theory of the press has been the free
press theory.
According to this theory a free press is seen essential to a
free society and dignity of the individual. Freedom of the press was
closely linked with the idea of freedom of the individual and with liberal
and utilitarian political philosophy.
This theory protects media owners rather than the rights
of editors and journalists, or of the public. The theory offers power without
social responsibility
1. •Values media freedom
2. •Is consistent with U.S media traditions
3. •Values individuals
4. •prevents government control of media
weakness
1. •It overly optimistic about media’s
willingness to meet responsibilities
2. •It is overly optimistic about
individuals ethcs and rationality
3. •Ignore dilemmas posed by conflicting
freedoms for example free press versus personal privacy
3.Social Responsibility Theory
This theory has been derived from Hutchins Report in 1947.
According to this theory it the press has work as the
information sound and normal needs of the society. The theory based on the
assumption that media sense the essential function of society in truth,
accuracy, objectivity, and balance.
The commission found that the free market approach to press freedom
had not yet met the informational and social need of the society and
possibilities for reform.
The theory view that the press had certain obligation to
society and ownership is a public trust. The media ownership as a form of
public trust rather than as as unlimited private franchise.
It served as an influential example to other countries.
The media should follow agreed codes of ethics and professional conduct.
It involved a view of media ownership as a form of public trust or
stewardship.
Social responsibility should be reached by self-control, not
government intervention. This theory holds that the government must
not merely allow freedom, it must actively promote it. The government should
act to protect the freedom of its citizens. . The public interest was
a greater value than unregulated freedom of expression. Under some
circumstances government may need to intervene to safeguard the public
interest.
4.Soviet Media Theory/ Communist media Theory
It is derived from Lenin’s application of Marx and Engels.
According to this theory media are the mental production of ideology.
Through the communist party media projected the interest of working
class rather than elite people.
As per this theory media is a tool to socialize the people such that
educate, inform, motivate, and mobilize the citizens. The public will
encouraged to provide feedback.
Lenin thought of private
ownership as being incompatible with freedom of press and that modern
technological means of information must be controlled for enjoying effective
freedom of press.
The theory advocated that
the sole purpose of mass media was to educate the great masses of workers and
not to give out information. The public was encouraged to give feedback as it
was the only way the media would be able to cater to its interests.
It is otherwise called
as Effects theory or Limited effects theory
In 1944 Paul
Lazarsfeld, Bernard Berelson, and Hazel Gaudet developed two step flow theory.
They are focused on the process of decision-making during a
Presidential election campaign.
Elihu Katz and Paul
Lazarsfeld and his collegues developed two step flow theory on
1955. This theory asserts that information from the media moves in
two distinct stages. Ideas often flow from the mass media
to less active section of the population through the opinion leaders.
The power of the mass media
therefore is indirect and is reduced by the influence of local opinion leaders.
The power of media therefore is indirect and is reduced by the influence of
local opinion leaders.
1. First, opinion leaders who
pay close attention to the mass media and its messages receive the information.
2. Opinion leaders pass on their own
interpretations in addition to the actual media content.
3. The term ‘personal influence’ was
intervening between the media’s direct message and the audience’s
ultimate reaction to that
message.·
4. Opinion leaders are quite
influential in getting people to change their attitudes and behaviors and are
quite similar to those they influence.
5. Opinion leaders/change agents:
Meaning
of Two step theory
· People are not easily
manipulated by media content
· There is a two step flow of media
influence
· Most people have developed stronglyheld
group commitments such as political party and religious affiliations.That
individual media messages are powerless to overcome
· When media effects do occur they will
be modest and isolated . They are some how cutoff from the influence
of their people. They are undermined by social crises.eg. educated urban people
The two-step flow theory has
improved our understanding of how the mass media influence decision making.
The theory refined the
ability to predict the influence of media messages on audience behavior, and it
helped explain why certain media campaigns may have failed to alter audience
attitudes and behavior.
11.Westley and MacLean’s model of communication
is proposed by Bruce Westley and Malcolm S. MacLean. Westley
served as a teacher at the University of Wisconsin,Malcolm was director of
University of Journalism School and co founder of the University College at
University of Minnesota. This theory can be work under two contexts,they are
Interpersonal and Mass communication.
Model:
1, X2, X3 and X4….—are news articles or information, Feedback (f),
Clients (A), Reader or Audience (B) and Gate Keeper (c)
Westely and Maclean realized that communication begins only when a person
receives message from surroundings.
This model considers a strong relation between responds from surroundings
and the process of communication.
Each receiver responds to the message they received based on their
object of orientation.
Example:
Advertisement given thro Television
A Television will receive many advertisement from their clients.
In this case, Television will broadcast the selected advertisement due to
the time constraints.
Then, viewers can directly respond to the client or they can respond to
the television which broadcast in the television.
If viewer responded to television, it will communicate the feedback to
client./agency
X1, X2 and X3—are advertisement, Feedback (f), agency (A), Reader (B) and
television/media (Gate Keeper) ©
Merits
1. This model accounts for Feedback.
2. It can account for both interpersonal
communication and Mass communication.
3. It is a predictive model of
communication and very descriptive also.
4. Westley and Maclean communication model
is Two Dimensional.
Memerits
It cannot account for multi dimensions; this means this model will not be
applicable for typical communication events that involve broader context
and wide range of communication messages.
As filmmakers, they must use mood-boards
who showcase color palette ideas maximize emotional and
visual effect using color sense. Cinematography is such an important part
of the filmmaking process. Filmmakers have an even bigger challenge
because cameras move, the colors in backgrounds and foregrounds
will always be changing.Color in film can build
harmony or tension within a scene. When telling a story, colors can; Color
is often an extremely powerful tool communicate emotional ideas to the
audience. Color can affect audience
emotionally, psychologically and even physically.
1. Elicit psychological
reactions with the audience
2. Draw focus to
significant details
3. Set the tone of the
movie
4. Represent character
traits and more
5. Show changes or arcs in
the story
Filmmakers
are both artists and craftsmen, who explains the power of color and
how successful filmmakers use it to give meaning and impact to their stories.
and use as a device to tell the story.
Yellow
is the colour of caution, it brings power, energy and anxiety. Dick Tracy
wears a bright yellow coat and hat, the screen becomes energised whenever Tracy
enters. The color is brash, daring, it is the color of obsession , there is a
reason poisonous reptiles have yellow skin. Tracy is the obsessive detective
caught up in his case .
Blue
can be a tranquil pond or a soft blanket of sadness. Throughout Shawshank
the film is surrounded by the color of blue. A smog of grey blue surrounds the
film. Shawshank is a film of sadness, and is this emotion that cinematographer
Roger Deakins wanted the audience to feel throughout the film. That we are amongst
the prisons. When Andy escapes the prison he finds his friend Red on an island,
with vibrant green land – the first time vivid colours have been used
throughout the film.
Green can signal health, danger or decay. It is
the colour of fresh vegetables and spoiled meat. In Crouching Tiger Hidden
Dragon Jen and her master Li Mu Bai are about to have a fight in a green
vibrant bamboo forest. The fight is non-violent Jen’s master is afraid that Jen
is turning evil, he chases her through the forest, she disappears diving into a
green lake. The oppositional nature of green plays a significant part in
the story.
Purple
the colour of mystery, the paranormal and death.In Chicago purple is used to
show both death and delusion. Roxy stands on stage she looks out into the crowd
purple light covers her and the piano player. Roxy is imagining that she is a
famous singer, the story is about the glamorization of criminals. Purple is
consistent throughout the deaths that take place in the film.
Color
psychology, is defined as the study of hues as a determinant of human
behavior.
Colors
evoke emotion in our brains. It’s been proven time and time again that hues of
blue are most often associated with cool, calm feelings, while stronger colors
like red stir up strong, aggressive emotions.
It’s these
underlying perceptions that help photographers and cinematographers alike bring
about a certain feel and aesthetic to a particular image, be it still or
motion.
From David Fincher’s Fight Club to Wes Anderson’s The Grand Budapest Hotel,
the video shows how clever use of colors and composition subconsciously evoke
emotions as the respective directors and cinematographers create and capture
the scenes of a film.
Example of Complementary Colors
This is how you color simplify an image. You simply limit the assortment
of colors that make it into your footage which allows you to control both the
mood and tone of the scene as well as provide color symbolism.
To help enhance color simplicity you might also want to play around with
color balance and color highlights. Look at the following photograph for
example. Notice the image is predominately cool (blue) with only a warm
(orange) highlight. Playing with color highlights is a great way to add
interesting color components to your film footage.
If you’re a filmmaker, understanding color, color theory, color
psychology, color simplicity and color balance is a must in order to be able to
effectively set the tone of your scene as well as isolate your main areas of
interest. Distracting colors, just as much as distracting objects, add
unnecessary visual confusion and clutter to a scene. By simplifying your colors
you help isolate the more important areas of your footage.cinematography-color-simplicity
The underlying fact behind the birth of this
theory was that there can be no development without communication. The weakness of this theory is that
"development" is often equated with government propaganda. One of the
important development communication theory is Rogers diffusion theory.
The model describes the factors that
influence people's thoughts and actions and the process of adopting a new
technology or idea.
The diffusion mode is more media- and
message-oriented, while the participation mode is more about dialog,
investigation, and analysis.
Diffusion
Rogers (2005, p. 12) defines Innovation as "an idea, practice
or object that has perceived as new by an individual or other unit of adoption.
First time knowledge about a well-established practice can be perceived
as ‘new,’ and an innovation, for that particular group of individuals.
As Rogers said, "newness can be expressed in terms of knowledge,
persuasion or a decision to adopt." The main characteristics of an
innovation that significantly affect its adoption (or rejection) are (1)
relative advantage (2) compatibility (3) complexity (4) trialability (5)
observability.
Communication plays a significant role in the spread of ideas and
exchange of information. By means of a communication channel, messages
are transmitted from one individual to another.
The two most powerful communication channels are the mass media and
interpersonal communication. The former helps in creating awareness and
spreading knowledge about an innovation, whereas, the latter is effective in
creating an opinion and possible adoption or rejection of the innovation.
Time is an important factor in studying diffusion research. Time is
involved in various phases of the diffusion process, namely (1) the innovation
decision process; (2 )the individual innovativeness. A specific time taken for
an individual to accept/reject an innovation as compared to others;
This is the stage when the users or possible adopters first hear
about the existence of the innovation, and then gain knowledge and
understanding about its various functions. There are three types of knowledge
associated with these questions:
In the persuasion stage, an individual forms a favorable or an unfavorable
attitude towards an innovation, but this attitude does not necessarily lead to
adoption or rejection of the innovation. Rogers states that the former is
more cognitive or knowing, whereas the latter is more affective or feeling.
In the decision stage, the individual puts his knowledge and opinion into
practice and decides whether to adopt or reject an innovation.
Implementation occurs when the innovation is put into practice. A person
gathers all necessary information regarding the innovation and comes to a
decision of adopting (or rejecting) it. Finally, in this stage it is put into
practice.
The Confirmation stage involves the reinforcement of
the adoption decision and integration of the new innovation within the
framework of existing practices. It is also possible that the individual also
decides to reverse his decision of adoption, if he comes across any conflicting
views about the innovation.
Selective
perception :This is the tendency to interpret communication messages in
terms of one"s existing attitudes. Selective perception is influenced by
social relationships.
This theory propounded by Katz in
1970, is concerned with how people use media for gratification of their
needs. An outcome of Abraham
Maslow's Heirarchy of Needs, it propounds the fact that people choose what
they want to see or read and the different media compete to satisfy each
individual"s needs.
In the hierarchy of needs, there are
five levels in the form of a pyramid with the basic needs such as food and
clothing at the base and the higher order needs climbing up the pyramid.
The Uses and Gratifications Theory assumes
audiences actively seek out media to satisfy individual needs. The Uses
and Gratifications Theory looks to answer three questions:
1. what do people do with the media,
2. what are their underlying motives for using
media, and
3. what are the pros and cons of this individual
media use.
The Uses and Gratifications
approach reminds us that people use media for many purposes. . In general researchers have found four kinds of
gratifications:
This would fit the news and documentaries
which both give us a sense that we are learning about the world.
2. Personal Identity - we may watch
the television in order to look for models for our behaviour. So, for
example, we may identify with characters that we see in a soap.
3. Integration and Social Interaction -
we use the media in order to find out more about the circumstances of other
people. Watching a show helps us to empathize and sympathize with the lives of
others so that we may even end up thinking of the characters in programme as
friends.
Katz replaced the
question "what do media do to people?" with the question "what
do people do with the media?" Katz, Gurevitch & Hass found
that the media are used by individuals to meet the following specific needs :
· Tension release needs (escape and diversion)
McQuail, Blumler and Brown suggested the
following individual needs categories:
In 1960, David Berlo
postulated Berlo's Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver (SMCR) model of
communication from Shannon Weaver's Model of Communication (1949). He described factors affecting the individual
components in the communication making the communication more efficient.
The model also focuses on encoding and
decoding which happens before sender sends the message and before receiver
receives the message respectively.
Berlo"s SMCR (SOURCE, MESSAGE, CHANNEL, and RECEIVER) model focuses
on the individual characteristics of communication and stresses the role of the
relationship between the source and the receiver as an important variable in
the communication process. The more highly
developed the communication skills of the source and the receiver, the more
effectively the message will be encoded and decodedBerlo's Model has mainly,
four components to describe the communication process. They
are sender, message, channel and receiver. Each of the
component is affected by many factors.
Berlo's model represents a
communication process that occurs as a SOURCE drafts messages based on one's
communication skills, attitudes, knowledge, and social and cultural
system. These MESSAGES are transmitted along
CHANNELS, which can include sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste. A RECEIVER
interprets messages based on the individual's communication skills, attitudes,
knowledge, and social and cultural system. The limitations of the model are its
lack of feedback.
Components of Berlo's Model of Communication
Sender is the source of the message or the
person who originates the message. The person or source sends the message to
the receiver. The following are the factor related to sender and is also the
same in the case of receiver.
· Communication Skills
· Attitude
· Knowledge
· Social Systems
· Culture
M-Message
A message is the substance that is being sent
by the sender to the receiver. It might be in the form of voice, audio, text,
video or other media. The key factors affecting the message are
·
Content
·
Elements
·
Treatment
·
Structure
·
Code
Channel is the medium used to send the message. In mass communication and other forms of
communication, technical machines might be used as a channel like telephone,
internet, etc. But in general communication, the five senses of a human being
is the channel for the communication flow and it affects the effectiveness of
the channel.
· Hearing - We receive the message through
hearing.
· Seeing - We perceive through seeing. We also
get non-verbal messages by seeing.
· Touching - Many of the non-verbal
communication happens from touching like holding hands.
· Smelling - We collect information from
smelling.
· Tasting - Taste also provides the information
to be sent as a message.
Receiver is the person who gets the message
sent in the process. This model believes that the thinking pattern and all
other factors mentioned above must be in sync to that of the sender for the
communication to be effective. The message might not have the same effect as
intended if the receiver and sender are not similar. The receiver must also
have a very good listening skill. Other factors are similar to that of the
sender.
· Attitudes
· Knowledge
· Social Systems
· Culture
· There is no concept of feedback, so the
effect is not considered.
· There is no concept of noise or any kind of barriers
in communication process.
· It is a linear model of communication, there
is no two way communication.
· Both of the people must be similar according
to all the factors mentioned above.
Submitted by Sneha Mishra
George Gerbner tried to
determine the influence of television on viewers" ideas of the environment
they lived in.
He found that dominance of TV created a
common view of the world and that it homogenized different cultures. TV portrayed the society as a bad place to live in
leading to people becoming distrustful of the world. Over time, particular
symbols, images, messages, meanings become dominant and are absorbed as the
truth. Cultural stereotypes, ways of assessing value and hierarchies are
established.
Cultivation theory tackles the long-term
effects of television on viewers. The theory proposes that the danger of
television lies in its ability to shape shape people's moral values and general
beliefs about the world. The theory stands on a number of concepts: the
symbolic environment, story telling, the symbolic function of television, the
television behaviour, the cultural model, the cultivation of value system, the
multidirectional process, and the cultural indicators.
Cultivation Theory argues
media shapes a persons sense of reality. Because many acquire information
through mediated sources rather than direct experience, their world view
becomes influenced by these sources. For example, Cultivation Theory suggests
that people who would be defined as heavy television viewers see the world as
more violent that it actually is
1. Symbolic Environment
Human beings are the only creatures that we
know of that live in a world beyond the threats and gratifications of their
immediate environment.
2. Story Telling
According to Gerbner there are three
types of stories:
1) How things work: These are fictional stories
that reveal the invisible dynamics of human life.
2) How things are: These are stories of the
news; they confirm the visions, rules, goals of a particular society.
3) What to do: These are stories of value and
choice, such as laws and religion.
3. The Symbolic Function of TV
TV has become an essential source in
providing individuals with information about the surrounding world, as it
proffers to them basic facts about life, people, society, and authority.
For, situations depicted in fiction, drama, and news whether in
realistic, fantastic, tragic, or comic way presented in fiction, drama, or news
offer
The cultivation theory empathizes that
television does not reflect what is happening in the outside world, but it
presents an artificial world that focuses on certain issues depending on the
will and interest of those controlling the media.
TV portrays hidden and pervasive values,
rules, and moral for what is right, what is important, and what is appropriate
in a social discourse in an invisible manner. In another study investigating a
relationship between TV portrayal of women and prejudice against them, most
groups.
Formulated by Albert Bandura at Stanford University, this specifies
that mass-media messages give audience members an opportunity to identify with
attractive characters that demonstrate behavior, engage emotions, and allow
mental rehearsal and modeling of new behavior. The
behavior of models in the mass media also offers vicarious reinforcement to
motivate audience members' adoption of the behavior.
Social Learning Theory argues that people learn from each other through observing,
imitating, and modeling the behaviors, attitudes, and emotional reactions of
others. Social learning theory explains how human behavior can be shaped by
continuous reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, an
environmental influences.
Bandura’s Social Learning Theory posits that people learn from one another, via
observation, imitation, and modeling. The theory has often been called a
bridge between behaviorist and cognitive learning theories because it
encompasses attention, memory, and motivation.
People learn through
observing others’ behavior, attitudes, and outcomes of those behaviors. “Most
human behavior is learned observationally through modeling: from observing
others, one forms an idea of how new behaviors are performed, and on later
occasions this coded information serves as a guide for action.” (Bandura).
Social learning theory explains human behavior in terms of continuous
reciprocal interaction between cognitive, behavioral, and environmental
influences.
Attention — various factors increase or decrease the amount of attention
paid. Includes distinctiveness, affective valence, prevalence, complexity,
functional value. One’s characteristics (e.g. sensory capacities, arousal
level, perceptual set, past reinforcement) affect attention.
Retention — remembering what you paid attention to. Includes symbolic
coding, mental images, cognitive organization, symbolic rehearsal, motor
rehearsal
Reproduction — reproducing the image. Including physical capabilities,
and self-observation of reproduction.
Motivation — having a good reason to imitate. Includes motives such as
past (i.e. traditional behaviorism), promised (imagined incentives) and
vicarious (seeing and recalling the reinforced model)
Theories of mass
communication have always focused on the "cause and effects" notion,
i.e. the effects of the media and the process leading to those effects, on the
audience's mind. Harold Lasswell and Berelson have
succinctly expressed this idea. Lasswell's
essential question is timeless (1949): "Who says what in what channel to
whom with what effects? "Berelson said:
"Some kinds of communication, on some kinds of issues, brought to the
attention of some kinds of people, under some kinds of conditions, have some
kinds of effects." (1949).
The short form of AIDA stands for Attention,
Interest, Desire and Action. These are the four stages that a consumer goes
through when watching or viewing an advertisement. According to Lewis,
first and foremost, the role of an advertisement is to attract the customers.
Once an advertisement grabs attention, it has to invoke interest towards the
product in the minds of the consumers.
THE PROCESS OF AIDA
§ Attention:
Attention is usually grabbed by the use of image, color, layout, typography,
size, celebrity, model etc
§ Interest:
Once attention is grabbed, it’s necessary to create interest in the viewers
mind so that they will read more about the brand being advertised. By the use
of an attractive sub head, interest can be invoked
§ Desire:
The element of desire is usually created by the use of body copy where you
write in detail about the necessity of buying the brand, thereby explaining the
features of the brand, facts and figures
§ Action:
Towards the end, the contact information of the brand will be given where they
expects the viewers to take action immediately. It can be in the form of shop
address, toll free numbers or website address
An advertisements success depends up on the
viewer’s ability to notice and understand its message. The AIDA model helps the
copy writer to present the elements of a print ad, Headline, Subhead, Body
copy, slogan and contact information in a format that makes the viewers
read in a flow and understand about the product easily.
With the AIDA model Strong
suggests that for an advertisement to be effective it has to be one that:
1. Commands Attention
2. Leads to Interest
in the product
3. And thence to Desire to
own or use the product
4. and then finally
leads to Action (See Figure 3) (Mackay, 2005) For the advertisement to
contribute to success it has to be designed so that the customer passes through
all these four phases, with all being equally important. The model implies that
advertising should inject memorable and believable messages that will make
costumers triggered to act in a certain way (Brierley, 200
The model may be seen by many as the
strongest advertising theory, but has along with the others been criticised by
different sections of the advertising community. They claim that there is no
evidence that customers behave in this rational, linear way. They mean that
mass media advertising in general fail to stimulate desire or action. The model
ignores the role of context, environment and mediation in influencing the
effectiveness of the advertisement. The advertising world has because of this
lately turned into focus more on the two main behavioural responses: awareness
and interest. They mean that all four phases are not equally important and to
be successful the advertiser has to look further into the behavioural phases
DAGMAR Russell Colley created DAGMAR
model of Advertising communication. DAGMAR
was created to encourage measurable objectives for each stage of the
communication and does not deal purely with the message. DAGMAR focuses
on the levels of understanding that a customer must have for the organisation
and on how to measure the results of an advertising campaign .
The main conclusions on the DAGMAR
theory were expressed in the following quotation: All commercial communications
that weigh on the ultimate objective of a sale must carry a prospect through
four levels of understanding.
1. The prospect must first be aware of the
existence of a brand or organisation
2. He must have a comprehension of what the
product is and what it will do for him
3. He must arrive at a mental suspicion or
conviction to buy the product
4. Finally he must stir himself to action.
The DAGMAR approach has had a huge
influence on the how to set objectives in the advertising planning process and
many planners use this model as their base.
HIERARCHY-OF-EFFECTS MODEL
The model was named the
hierarchy-of-effects model which is the same name as some authors used on the
foundation theory, and will therefore go under the name, Lavidge &
Steiners. According to this model customers do not switch from being
completely uninterested to become convinced to buy the product in one step.
Lavidge and Steiners Hierarchy-of-effects model is created to show the process,
or steps, that an advertiser assumes that customers pass through in the actual
purchase process.
The model is based on seven steps,
which as with the other models must be completed in a linear way . The
big difference between this model and the others is not only the steps, but
also the view on how to pass them. Lavidge and Steiner write that the steps has
to be completed in a linear way, but ìa potential purchaser sometimes may move
up several steps.
1- What are the classical theories of
Communication?
1- What is your understanding of the questions
“What does media do to people?” and “What do people do with the media”?[Your
opinion is important to us. If have a comment, correction or question pertaining
to this chapter please send it to appropriate person listed in contact information or visit forums for this course.]
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Wednesday, 6 February 2019
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