What are human rights?

What are human rights?

Human rights are rights inherent to all human beings, regardless of gender, nationality, place of residency, sex, ethnicity, religion, color or and other categorization. Thus, human rights are non-discriminatory, meaning that all human beings are entitled to them and cannot be excluded from them. Of course, while all human beings are entitled to human rights, not all human beings experience them equally throughout the world. 

In order to live with dignity certain basic rights and freedoms are necessary, which all Human beings are entitled to, these basic rights are called Human Rights

Human rights demand recognition and respect for the inherent dignity to ensure that everyone is protected against abuses which undermine their dignity, and give the opportunities they need to realize their full potential, free from discrimination.

There are a variety of human rights, including:

• Civil rights (such as the rights to life, liberty and security),
• Political rights (like rights to the protection of the law and equality before the law),
• Economic rights (including rights to work, to own property and to receive equal pay),
• Social rights (like rights to education and consenting marriages),
• Cultural rights (including the right to freely participate in their cultural community), and
• Collective rights (like the right to self-determination).

Human rights include civil and political rights, such as:
# The right to freedom of expression
# The right to freedom of religion or conscience
# The right to property
# The right to freedom of assembly
# The right to privacy
# The right to vote.

Human rights also cover economic and social rights, such as:
# The right to an adequate standard of living
# The right to adequate food, housing, water and sanitation
# The rights you have at work
# The right to education.

Human rights belong to everyone, everywhere, regardless of nationality, sexuality, gender, race, religion or age. The foundation of modern human rights is the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR). The 30 articles of the Declaration were adopted in 1948 by the United Nations General Assembly, and over time these have been integrated into national laws and international treaties. The core values of the UDHR - human dignity, fairness, equality, non-discrimination - apply to everyone, everywhere. source


he National Human Rights Commission
Section 3. Constitution of a National Human Rights Commission
(1) The Central Government shall constitute a body to be known as the National Human Rights Commission to exercise the powers conferred upon, and to perform the functions assigned to it, under this Act.

(2) The Commission shall consist of:
(a) a Chairperson who has been a Chief Justice of the Supreme Court;
(b) one Member who is or has been, a Judge of the Supreme Court;
(c) one Member who is, or has been, the Chief Justice of a High Court;
(d) two Members to be appointed from amongst persons having knowledge of, or practical experience in, matters relating to human rights.

(3) The Chairperson of the National Commission for Minorities, [the National Commission for the Scheduled Castes, the National Commission for the Scheduled Tribes]and the National Commission for Women shall be deemed to be Members of the Commission for the discharge of functions specified in clauses (b) to (j) of section 12.

(4) There shall be a Secretary-General who shall be the Chief Executive Officer of the Commission and shall exercise such powers and discharge such functions of the Commission

[except judicial functions and the power to make regulations under section 40 B], as may be delegated to him by the Commission or the Chairperson as the case may be.

(5) The headquarters of the Commission shall be at Delhi and the Commission may, with the previous approval of the Central Government, establish offices at other places in India.

STATE HUMAN RIGHTS COMMISSIONS 

 Constitution of State Human Rights Commissions 

(1) A State Government may constitute a body to be known as the ....................... (name of the State) Human Rights Commission to exercise the powers conferred upon, and to perform the functions assigned to, a State Commission under this chapter. 

(2)1 [The State Commission shall, with effect from such date as the State Government may by notification specify, consist of—
 (a) a Chairperson who has been a Chief Justice of a High Court; 
(b) one Member who is, or has been, a Judge of a High Court or District Judge in the State with a minimum of seven years experience as District Judge;
 (c) one Member to be appointed from amongst persons having knowledge of, or practical experience in, matters relating to human rights.]1

 (3) There shall be a Secretary who shall be the Chief Executive Officer of the State Commission and shall exercise such powers and discharge such functions of the State Commission as it may delegate to him.

 (4) The headquarters of the State Commission shall be at such place as the State Government may, by notification, specify. 

(5) A State Commission may inquire into violation of human rights only in respect of matters relatable to any of the entries enumerated in List II and List lll in the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution: Provided that if any such matter is already being inquired into by the Commission or any other Commission duly constituted under any law for the time being in force, the State Commission shall not inquire into the said matter: Provided further that in relation to the Jammu and Kashmir Human Rights Commission, this sub-section shall have effect as if for the words and figures “List ll and List lll in the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution”, the words and figures “List lll in the Seventh Schedule to the Constitution as applicable to the State of Jammu and Kashmir and in respect of matters in relation to which the Legislature of that State has power to make laws” had been substituted.

 (6) [Two or more State Governments may, with the consent of a Chairperson or Member of a State Commission, appoint such Chairperson or, as the case may be, such Member of another State Commission simultaneously if such Chairperson or Member consents to such appointment: Provided 

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Human Communication

Important notes for Human communication

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LONGITUDINAL STUDIES

In the mass media area, the first major longitudinal study was done by Lazarsfeld, Berelson, and Gaudet (1944) during the 1940 presidential election.

TYPES OF LONGITUDINAL STUDIES

The three main types of longitudinal studies are trend study, cohort analysis, and panel study. Each is discussed in this section.

Trend Studies

The trend study is probably the most com­mon type of longitudinal study in mass media research. Recall that a trend study samples different groups of people at differ­ent times from the same population.

Trend studies are useful, but they have limitations. Suppose that a sample of adults is selected three months before an election and 57% report that they intend to vote for Candidate A and 43% for Candidate B. A month later, a different sample drawn from the same population shows a change: 55% report that they are going to vote for A and 45% for B.

This is a simple example of a trend study
	3 month before election	one month before	Before one week
A	57%	55%	45%
B	43%	45%	55%

 To determine both the gross change and the net change, a panel study is necessary.

Advantages.

·         Trend studies are valuable in describing long-term changes in a popu­lation.

·         They can establish a pattern over time to detect shifts and changes in some event.

·         They can be based on a comparison of survey data originally constructed for other purposes.

Disadvantages.

If data are unre­liable, false trends will show up in the results. Trend analy­sis must be based on consistent measures.

Examples of Trend Studies.

the trend study  about newspaper reading and attitudes to­ward ethnic minorities that spanned five years.

Cohort Analysis

 Cohort analysis attempts to identify a cohort effect: Changes in the dependent variable due to aging, or are they present because the sample members belong to the same cohort?

To illustrate, suppose that 50% of college seniors report that they regularly read news magazines, whereas only 10% of college freshmen in the same survey give this answer. How might the difference be accounted for? One explanation is that freshmen change their reading habits as they progress through college. Each survey has different participants—the same people are not questioned again, as in a panel study—but each sample represents the same group of people at different points in their college career.

Reading habit	Seniors	Freshers
2014	68	32
2015	55	45
2016	60	40

.

Typically, a cohort analysis involves data from more than one cohort. It displays news magazine readership for a number of birth cohorts. Note that the column variable (read down) is age, and the row variable (read across) is the year of data collection. This type of table allows a researcher to make three types of comparisons. First, reading down a single column is analogous.

Percentage of Adults Who Regularly Read News Magazines

Age	1992	1996	2006
18-21	15	12	10
22-25	34	32	28
26-29	48	44	35

A "pure" period effect. There is no variation by age at any period; the columns are identical, and the varia­tions from one period to the next are identi­cal. Furthermore, the change in each cohort (read diagonally to the right) is the same as the average change in the total population.

Table 8.2	Cohort Table Showing Pure
Age Effect
		Year
Age	1992	1996        2000
18-21	15	10
22-25	20	15
26-29	25	20
Average	20	15

Second, reading across the rows shows trends at each age level that occur when cohorts replace one another. Second, influences associated with members in a certain birth cohort are called cohort effects.

It  shows a "pure" cohort effect. Here the cohort diagonals are constant, and the variation from younger to older respon­dents is in the opposite direction from the variation from earlier to later survey peri­ods. In this table, the key variable seems to be date of birth. Among those who were born between 1971 and 1974, news maga­zine readership was 15% regardless of their age or when they were surveyed.

Third, reading diagonally toward the right reveals changes in a single cohort from one time to another (an intracohort study). Finally, in­fluences associated with each particular time period are called period effects.

18-21	15	10	5
22-25	20	15	10
26-29	25	20	15
Average	20	15	10

Advantages.

1.      Cohort analysis is an ap­pealing and useful technique because it is highly flexible.

2.      It provides insight into the effects of maturation and social, cultural, and political change.

3.      A cohort analysis can be less expensive than experiments or surveys.

Disadvantages.

 The major disadvantage of cohort analysis is that the specific effects of age, cohort, and period are difficult to un­tangle through purely statistical analysis of a standard cohort table.

1.      In survey data, much of the variation in percentages among cells is due to sampling variability. There are no uni­formly accepted tests of significance appro­priate to a cohort table that allow researchers to estimate the probability that the observed differences are due to chance.

2.      A second disadvantage of the technique is sample mortality. If a long period is involved or if the specific sample group is difficult to reach, the researcher may have some empty cells in the cohort table or some that contain too few members for meaningful analysis.

Examples of Cohort Analysis. Cohort analy­sis is useful in the study of public opinion.

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